INFLUENCE OF PRINCIPALS’ STUDENT MANAGEMENT PRACTICES ON STUDENT RETENTION IN PUBLIC DAY SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN NAKURU COUNTY, KENYA ELSIE NJAMBI NYAGA A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY DEGREE IN EDUCATION LEADERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT OF MOUNT KENYA UNIVERSITY OCTOBER, 2024 ii DECLARATION AND APPROVAL iii DEDICATION To my husband James Nyaga, children Githiri, Giita and Wambui. Daughters-in-laws Jennifer and Wangechi; Grandchildren Njambi, Githiri, Jesse and Mylee for their love and support. iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENT My deepest gratitude goes to the almighty God for His strength throughout this PhD journey and to my esteemed supervisor Dr. Nyabisi and Dr. Peterson Oigara of Mount Kenya University for their invaluable guidance patience and support during my study. My heartfelt appreciation also extends to Prof Pamela Ochieng, Dr. Ruth Nyambura, Dr. Gilbert Nyakundi, Dr. Fred Obande and Prof Kiboss who helped me in shaping the concepts in this study for their unwavering support. Special thanks goes to friends, Kennedy, Ombasa, Mufoya, Susan, karanja and my PhD colleagues for their invaluable contributions and encouragements. I am equally indebted to the education officers, principles, teachers and students in Nakuru County for their co-operation during data collection. Special gratitude goes to my brother David Kanyuga and my late parents William Machocho and Eunice Wambui who invested time love and resources to see me through education. May God bless you all. v ABSTRACT The Kenya secondary school education system, which lasts four years, faces challenges in retention rates, despite the government's policy of 100% student transition. The purpose of this study was to find out the influence of principals’ student management practices on student retention in public, day secondary schools in Nakuru County. The specific objectives of this study were to: determine the influence of principals’ student mentorship, motivation, disciplinary and financial support practices on student retention in public, day secondary schools in Nakuru County. The study was guided by Tintos’ student integration theory. The mixed methods research approach was adopted using the concurrent triangulation research design. The target population was 38,863 comprising of 293 principals, 3962 teachers and 34597 students and 11 Sub-County Directors of Education. In total, 574 participants were involved in the study comprising of samples of 90 principals, 363 teachers, 110 students and the 11 Sub-County Directors of Education. The sample size was determined using Slovenes’ formula. Interview schedules were used to collect qualitative data from Sub-County Directors of Education while questionnaires were used to collect quantitative data from principals and teachers. Data from students was collected using focus group discussions. A pilot study of the instruments was conducted in 9 schools in Laikipia County; and a Cronbach alpha coefficient of 0.9 obtained for principals, and 0.88 for teachers. Qualitative data obtained was analyzed thematically and presented in direct narration form. Quantitative data was analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics. The null hypothesis was tested using linear regression models formulated to measure the extent to which principals’ management practices influenced student retention. The study findings showed that the principals’ mentorship (r=0.359; p < 0.05) principals’ motivational (r = 0.482; p < 0.05), principals’ disciplinary (r=0.480; p < 0.05) and principals’ financial support practices (r= 0.360; p < 0.05) all had a positive correlation to student retention, as their p-values were below the significance level of 0.05. Therefore, the four null hypotheses were rejected, thus implying that principals’ student management practices had a statistically significant influence on student retention. Based on the findings, the study recommends that schools and educational authorities should implement tailored mentorship, motivational, disciplinary, and financial support practices to enhance student retention, particularly in Nakuru County Public, Day Secondary Schools. This study is significant because its findings provide invaluable insights for school principals, boards of management, teachers, and future researchers on strategies to enhance student management practices, mentorship, and retention in schools, while also contributing to the broader understanding of educational outcomes. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE DECLARATION AND APPROVAL ........................................................................... ii DEDICATION ............................................................................................................. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ............................................................................................ iv ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................. v LIST OF FIGURES .................................................................................................... xiv LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS .................................................... xv CHAPTER ONE ............................................................................................................ 1 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................... 1 1.0 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 1 1.1 Background of the Study ...................................................................................... 1 1.2 Statement of the Problem ..................................................................................... 6 1.3 Purpose of the Study ............................................................................................. 7 1.4 Objectives of the study ......................................................................................... 7 1.5 Research Hypothesis ............................................................................................ 8 1.6 Justification of the study ....................................................................................... 8 1.7 Significance of the Study ...................................................................................... 9 1.8 Scope of the Study .............................................................................................. 10 1.9 Limitations of the Study ..................................................................................... 11 1.10 Delimitations of the Study .................................................................................. 13 1.11 Assumptions of the Study ................................................................................... 13 1.12 Operational Definition of Key Terms ................................................................. 14 CHAPTER TWO ......................................................................................................... 16 LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................................ 16 2.0 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 16 2.1 Principals’ Mentorship Practices and Student Retention ................................... 16 2.2 Principals’ Motivation Practices and Student Retention .................................... 26 vii 2.3 Principals’ Disciplinary Practices and Student Retention .................................. 36 2.4 Principals’ Financial Support Practices and Student Retention ......................... 44 2.5 Theoretical Literature ......................................................................................... 53 2.5.1 Tinto's Theory of Student Departure ..................................................... 53 2.5.2 Systems Theory ..................................................................................... 55 2.6 Conceptual Framework ...................................................................................... 57 2.7 Summary and Research Gaps ............................................................................. 59 2.7.1 Research Gaps ....................................................................................... 59 2.7.2 Summary ..................................................................................................... 62 CHAPTER THREE ..................................................................................................... 66 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ................................................................................ 66 3.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 66 3.2 Research Methodology ....................................................................................... 66 3.2.1 Research Approach ................................................................................ 66 3.2.2 Variable Description .............................................................................. 66 3.3 Research Design ................................................................................................. 68 3.4 Location of the Study ......................................................................................... 69 3.5 Target Population .................................................................................................. 70 3.7 Sample Size ........................................................................................................ 71 3.8 Construction of Research Instruments ................................................................ 74 3.8.1 Questionnaires for Principals ................................................................ 74 3.8.2 Questionnaires for Teachers .................................................................. 74 3.8.3 Focus Group Discussions for Students .................................................. 75 3.8.4 Interview Schedules for Sub-County Directors of Education ............... 76 3.9 Pilot Study ............................................................................................................. 76 viii 3.10.1 Validity ............................................................................................................. 78 3.10.2 Reliability of Questionnaires .................................................................... 78 3.10.3 Credibility and Dependability of Qualitative Data ................................ 79 3.11 Data Collection Methods and Procedures .......................................................... 80 3.12 Data Analysis Techniques and Procedures ......................................................... 80 3.13 Ethical Considerations ........................................................................................ 84 CHAPTER FOUR ....................................................................................................... 86 RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS ........................................................ 86 4.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 86 4.2 General and demographic information .................................................................. 86 4.2.1 Response Rate ............................................................................................ 87 4.2.2 Demographic Characteristics .................................................................... 87 4.2.3: Length of Service in Current School ......................................................... 88 4.2.4 Levels of Subject Selection ........................................................................ 89 4.2.5 Rating of Student Retention .................................................................. 90 4.3 Influence of Principals Mentorship Practices on Students Retention ................... 92 4.3.1 Principal’s and Teachers’ Responses on Student Mentorship Practices 92 4.3.2 Descriptive Statistics for Principals Mentorship Practices ......................... 99 4.3.3 Qualitative Data Analysis ......................................................................... 103 4.3.4 Correlations between Principals Mentorship Practices and Student Retention 108 4.3.5 Linear Regression Analysis of Principals Mentorship Practices on Student retention ............................................................................................................. 109 4.4 Influence of Principals Motivational Practices on Students Retention ............... 112 4.4.1 Responses on Principals Motivational Practices ................................. 112 ix 4.4.2 Descriptive Statistics for Principals’ Motivational Practices ................... 118 4.4.3 Qualitative Data Analysis on Student Motivation .................................... 122 4.4.4 Correlation between Principals Motivational Practices and Average Student Retention ............................................................................................................ 126 4.4.5 Linear Regression analysis on Influence of Motivational Practices and Student Retention .............................................................................................. 130 4.5 Influence of Principals Disciplinary Practices on Students Retention ................ 133 4.5.1 Responses on Principals' Disciplinary Practices ................................. 133 4.5.2 Descriptive Statistics for Principals Disciplinary Practices ..................... 140 4.5.3 Qualitative Data Analysis ......................................................................... 144 4.5.4 Linear Regression analysis of Principals Disciplinary Practices on Student Retention ............................................................................................................ 148 4.6 Influence of Principals Financial Management Practices on Students Retention 152 4.6.1 Responses on Principals' Financial Management Practices ................ 152 4.6.2 Descriptive Statistics for Principals Financial Management Practices .... 159 4.6.3 Qualitative Data Analysis ......................................................................... 163 4.6.4 Correlations between Principals Financial Management Practices and Average Student Retention ................................................................................ 167 4.6.5 Linear Regression analysis of Principals Financial Management Practices and Student Retention ........................................................................................ 169 4.6.6 Summary of Descriptive and Correlations Analyses ................................ 173 4.8 Multiple Regression Analyses ............................................................................. 175 4.8.1 Model Summary .................................................................................. 175 4.3 Beta Coefficients ......................................................................................... 180 CHAPTER FIVE ....................................................................................................... 184 SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ............................. 184 x 5.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 184 5.2 Summary of the Result Findings ......................................................................... 184 5.2.1 Influence of Principals’ Student Mentorship Practices on Students’ Retention 185 5.2.2 Influence of Principals’ Motivational Practices on Students’ Retention .. 186 5.2.3 Influence of Principals’ Students’ Disciplinary Practices on Students’ Retention ............................................................................................................ 186 5.2.4 Influence of Principals’ Students Financial Support Practices on Students’ Retention ............................................................................................................ 187 5.3 Conclusions ......................................................................................................... 188 5.5 Recommendations ............................................................................................... 189 5.4.1 Recommendations for practice ............................................................ 189 5.4.2 Recommendations for policy .................................................................... 190 5.6 Suggestions for Further Studies ........................................................................... 191 REFERENCES .......................................................................................................... 192 APPENDICES ........................................................................................................... 208 APPENDIX I: MKU INTRODUCTION LETTER .................................................. 223 APPENDIX II: ........................................................................................................... 222 MKU ETHICAL REVIEW PERMIT ....................................................................... 222 APPENDIX III: ......................................................................................................... 224 NACOSTI LETTER .................................................................................................. 224 APPENDIX IV: ......................................................................................................... 225 MINISTRY OF EDUCATION LETTER ................................................................. 225 APPENDIX V: .......................................................................................................... 228 LETTER OF INTRODUCTION ............................................................................... 208 RESEARCH CONSENT FORM FOR PRINCIPALS, TEACHERS AND SUB- COUNTY DIRECTORS OF EDUCATION ............................................................. 209 APPENDIX VII: ........................................................................................................ 210 CHILDS’ CONSENT ................................................................................................ 210 xi APPENDIX VIII: ...................................................................................................... 211 PARENT’S / GUARDIAN’S CONSENT FORM .................................................... 211 APPENDIX IX: ......................................................................................................... 212 QUESTIONNAIRE FOR PRINCIPALS .................................................................. 212 APPENDIX X: .......................................................................................................... 216 QUESTIONNAIRE FOR TEACHERS .................................................................... 216 APPENDIX XI: ......................................................................................................... 220 INTERVIEW SCHEDULE FOR SUB-COUNTY DIRECTORS OF EDUCATION220 APPENDIX XIII: ...................................................................................................... 228 MAP OF THE STUDY AREA ................................................................................. 228 xii LIST OF TABLES Table 1: Target Population ............................................................................................. 70 Table 2: Strata samples of SCDE, principals, teachers and students per sub-county .... 73 Table 3: Data analysis plan per research objective ........................................................ 84 Table 4: Response Rate .................................................................................................. 87 Table 5: Length of Service in Current School ................................................................ 88 Table 6: Subjects Selection Level .................................................................................. 89 Table 7: Rating of Student Retention ............................................................................. 90 Table 8: Descriptive Statistics on Principal’s and Teachers’ Responses on Student Mentorship Practices ...................................................................................................... 93 Table 9: Descriptive Statistics on Principal’s Student Mentorship Practices ............... 100 Table 10: Correlations between Principals Mentorship Practices and Student Retention. ...................................................................................................................................... 108 Table 11: Model Summary for Principals Mentorship Practices ................................. 109 Table 12: Analysis of Variance for Principals Mentorship Practices ........................... 110 Table 13: Beta Coefficient for Principals Mentorship Practices .................................. 110 Table 14: Principal’s and Teachers’ Responses on Student Mentorship Practices ...... 113 Table 15: Descriptive Statistics for Principals’ Motivation Practices .......................... 119 Table 16: Correlations between Principals Motivational Practices and Student Retention ....................................................................................................................... 126 Table 17: Model Summary ........................................................................................... 130 Table 18: ANOVA for Principals Motivational Practices ............................................ 131 Table 19: Beta Coefficients for Principals Motivational Practices .............................. 132 Table 20: Descriptive Statistics for Principals' Disciplinary Practices ........................ 134 Table 21: Descriptive Statistics for Principals Disciplinary Practices ......................... 141 xiii Table 22: Correlations between Principals Disciplinary Practices and Student Retention ...................................................................................................................................... 147 Table 23 : Model Summary for Principals Disciplinary Practices ............................... 149 Table 24: ANOVA for Principals Disciplinary Practices ............................................. 150 Table 25: Beta Coefficients for Principals Disciplinary Practices ............................... 151 Table 26: Descriptive statistics on Principals' Financial Management Practices ......... 153 Table 27: Descriptive Statistics for Principals Financial Management Practices ........ 160 Table 28: Correlations between Principals Financial Management Practices and Student Retention ....................................................................................................................... 168 Table 29: Model Summary for Principals Financial Management Practices ............... 169 Table 30: ANOVA for Principals Financial Management Practices ............................ 170 Table 31: Beta Coefficients for Principals Financial Management Practices .............. 171 Table 32: Summary of Descriptive Statistics ............................................................... 173 Table 33: Model Summary ........................................................................................... 175 Table 34: Analysis of Variances (ANOVA) ................................................................ 177 Table 35: Beta Coefficients .......................................................................................... 180 xiv LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1: Conceptual Framework of Principals’ Management Practices and Retention of Students in Secondary Schools .................................................................. 57 Figure 2: Principals responses on Student Retention Rate over the years ..................... 90 Figure 3: A comparison of Correlations between Principals’ Student Management Practices, and Student Retention ............................................................ 174 xv LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS AFMLTA Association of French Teachers in Australia ANOVA Analysis of Variance CCTV Closed-Circuit Television CREATE Consortium for Research on Educational Access, Transitions and Equity FDSE Free Day Secondary Education FGD Focus Group Discussion FGM Female Genital Mutilation FPE Free Primary Education FTSE Free Tuition Secondary Education G/C Guidance and Counselling GPE Global Primary Education IGAs Income Generating Activities KCPE Kenya Certificate of Primary Education KCSE Kenya Certificate of Secondary Education KNBS Kenya National Bureau of Statistics KUCCPS Kenya Universities and Colleges Central Placement Service LW Living Well M. Ed Master of Education MOEST Ministry of Education, Science and Technology NACOSTI National Commission for Science, Technology and Innovation NER Net Enrollment Ratio NESSP National Education Sector Strategic Plan NGOs Non-Governmental Organizations xvi OECD Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development PBIS Positive Behavior Interventions and Supports PPMCC Pearson's Product-Moment Correlation Coefficient SCDE Sub County Director of Education SPSS Statistical Package for Social Sciences SSE Subsidized Secondary Education TSC Teachers Service Commission UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization UNICEF United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund UK United Kingdom VIF Variance Inflation Factor 1 CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.0 Introduction This chapter presents introduction and the context of the study under the following sub- headings: the background of the study, the statement of the problem, the purpose and objectives of the study, the hypothesis of the study, the justification and rationale for the study, the scope and significance of the study, its limitations and delimitations, and operational definitions of key terms. 1.1 Background of the Study The global landscape of education has increasingly emphasized student retention as a key performance metric within secondary schools. Recognizing that higher retention rates often correlate with improved academic performance, many countries have adopted comprehensive strategies to enhance educational access and completion (Adlof, Kim & Crawley, 2023). In the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) countries, low dropout rates in secondary education contribute to economic and social benefits, including higher levels of skills and knowledge essential for participation in a knowledge-based economy (OECD, 2018). For instance, Norway, Canada, and the United States have achieved 100% enrollment rates, signifying effective education systems that prioritize accessibility and commendable retention rates (OECD, 2017). These trends underscore the importance of understanding the factors that influence student retention, particularly the practices employed by school principals in fostering a supportive and conducive learning environment. 2 Globally, effective student management practices are recognized as critical for enhancing retention across educational contexts. These practices encompass a range of strategies, including proactive communication, supportive mentoring, and tailored academic programs that address students' diverse needs. In Europe, Finland is renowned for its holistic approach to education, which prioritizes student well-being and includes personalized learning experiences to keep students engaged (Sahlberg, 2019). In the United States, initiatives like early intervention programs and comprehensive advising systems have been implemented at institutions such as Georgia State University, significantly improving graduation rates (Buchanan, 2020). Similarly, Malaysia's focus on student engagement through co-curricular activities and mentorship programs has shown promising results in retention (Shakari, 2021). These diverse strategies reflect a global recognition of the importance of student management practices in fostering retention across educational systems. Effective implementation of these practices is critical to ensuring that all students have the opportunity to thrive academically, socially, and emotionally within the school environment. School management practices, as defined by Siebers et al. (2015), are techniques and innovations employed by managers to increase the efficacy of work systems. In the UK, for instance, Duarte et al. (2019) focused on operations management, performance monitoring, and talent management as principal management practices, finding that these have a significant impact on student outcomes, although their study did not specifically address student retention. Education systems across Africa encounter significant challenges, with a large percentage of secondary-age children still not enrolled in school. Reports highlight that 3 around 50% of secondary-age students in sub-Saharan Africa are out of school (Global Partnership for Education, 2019). In countries like Nigeria and Ghana, the establishment of supportive learning environments and the utilization of technology in education are essential student management practices aimed at combating high dropout rates (Owusu-Agyemang, 2022). A study by UNESCO (2023) from Nigeria, Malawi, and The Gambia reveals that enhancing student engagement and overcoming barriers such as poverty and cultural norms are critical for boosting retention (Rolleston, 2016). These findings underscore the importance of examining how principals' management practices impact student retention, as these insights can guide educational reforms and interventions across the continent. In Kenya, the education sector has witnessed significant growth at all levels since the country's independence in 1963 (Ngina, 2024). The introduction of the 100% transition policy, which mandates that all students who complete their primary education transition to secondary school, has led to a surge in enrollment numbers. This policy aligns with the government's Vision 2030, aiming to transform Kenya into a newly industrialized, middle-income country with a high standard of living for all citizens. Secondary education is particularly significant due to its connection with higher education, training, and the job market. However, challenges persist in student retention, with the Ministry of Education (2020) reporting an average retention rate of 82% at the secondary level. Factors contributing to students dropping out include early marriages, economic hardship, and inadequate support systems within schools, highlighting the essential role of school principals in managing student experiences and promoting retention. 4 In Nakuru County, where this study was situated, the challenges impacting student retention mirror broader national trends but are compounded by local socio-economic factors. According to statistics from the Nakuru County Education Office (2021), the retention rate stands at about 87%, indicating that approximately 12% of students enrolled do not complete their secondary education. Investigations into the reasons for dropout have identified issues such as teenage pregnancies, poverty, and familial instability (UNICEF, 2022). Previous studies indicate that school principals play a pivotal role in addressing these challenges through effective student management practices, including mentorship, motivation, and appropriate disciplinary approaches (Njangi, 2019; Mbijiwe, 2013). Despite this, there is a gap in empirical evidence linking specific management practices of principals to student retention in public day secondary schools, thus underscoring the need for further research in this area. Research on the influence of principals’ student management practices on retention is limited, particularly in the Kenyan context, where existing studies have often overlooked this crucial relationship. For instance, Arop et al. (2019) focused on management strategies impacting academic achievement without directly addressing student retention. Similarly, Mphale (2014) suggested that factors beyond the school's control, such as family background, significantly influence retention rates, highlighting the necessity for a broader collaborative framework involving parents and the community. Therefore, this study aims to fill the identified gaps by exploring the specific influence of principals' management practices on student retention in Nakuru County. This research will contribute to a more nuanced understanding of how effective leadership can create a supportive educational environment conducive to sustained enrollment and learning. 5 Student retention is a crucial indicator of educational success, reflecting a student’s ability to continue their academic journey from Form One to Form Four at the same institution. It fosters continuity, stability, and strong bonds between students, teachers, and the institution. Consistent enrollment levels create a conducive environment for students to thrive and grow, reinforcing the institution's reputation (Arop et al., 2019). Principal student management practices encompass a wide range of strategies and techniques designed to support and enhance the overall academic and behavioral development of students. These practices include effective classroom management strategies, individualized learning approaches, and proactive communication between teachers, students, and parents (Wakaraka & Mugwe, 2023). Additionally, they emphasize promoting student engagement and motivation, fostering a strong sense of community, and providing ongoing support to address challenges that may impact student success (Asih & Hasanah, 2021). Awuor (2018) established that drug abuse, poverty, pregnancies, and early marriage were all contributing factors to low student retention in a study on student enrollment and retention in Nakuru County. Phiri (2022) found a connection between student retention and the availability of textbooks, lab accessibility, and computer integration in the classroom. However, Phiri (2022) and Awuor (2018) did not assess how principals' strategies for encouraging and disciplining students as well as offering financial support affected student retention in Nakuru County. The need for the current study resulted from the lack of conclusive research data on the impact of principals' student management practices on student retention, particularly in public day secondary schools. 6 This study, therefore, concentrated on strategies utilized by school principals to improve student retention through student management practices. By investigating the various strategies used by principals to promote students' continued attendance and well-being in the learning environment, the study aims to provide insights into the factors influencing student retention in public day secondary schools in Nakuru County, Kenya. Understanding how these practices are implemented and their impact on student outcomes is crucial for improving educational policies and interventions aimed at increasing academic achievement and ensuring sustained student enrollment. As such, examining principals' student management practices forms an essential part of broader research on enhancing retention rates and ensuring overall student success within the educational system (Jura & Bukaliya, 2022). 1.2 Statement of the Problem In an ideal scenario, students in Kenyan secondary schools should remain in their original schools for the entire four-year duration of their secondary education. To enhance student retention, the government has implemented various initiatives, such as Free Day Secondary Education (FDSE), Subsidized Secondary Education (SSE), policies targeting drug and substance abuse, and affirmative action for girls' education. Despite these efforts, statistics indicate that students’ retention rate is still not at 100% in secondary schools. According to the Kenya National Bureau of Statistics, in 2022, the national student retention rate at the secondary school level in Kenya stood at an average of 82%. Statistics from Nakuru County Education Office shows that student retention rates at secondary school level between 2018-2022 were 87%, 89%, 89%, 88%, and 87% respectively; giving an average retention rate of 88%. This implies that on average, 18% of students in Kenya and 12% of students in Nakuru County did not 7 complete their secondary education as expected. These statistics indicated that the resources invested by government, parents and donors to provide secondary education for these students were wasted; and the aims, goals, and objectives of education for the individual, community, and nation as a whole remains unfulfilled. Existing empirical information from the background of this study showed that most researchers had focused on other factors that had affected student retention in schools such as teenage pregnancies, early marriages, child labour, parental insecurity and financial constraints. There is hardly any conclusive study available on the influence of principals’ student management practices such as mentorship, motivation, discipline and financial support on student retention; especially in public day secondary schools in Nakuru County, hence the need for this study. 1.3 Purpose of the Study The purpose of this study was to assess the influence of principals’ student management practices on student retention in public day secondary schools in Nakuru County. 1.4 Objectives of the study The objectives of this study were to: i) Determine the influence of principals’ student mentorship practices on student retention in public-day secondary schools in Nakuru County. ii) Establish the influence of principals’ student motivational practices on student retention in public-day secondary schools in Nakuru County. 8 iii) Determine the influence of principals’ student disciplinary practices on student retention in public-day secondary schools in Nakuru County. iv) Establish the influence of principals’ student financial support practices on student retention in public day secondary schools in Nakuru County. 1.5 Research Hypothesis This study tested the following null hypothesis: i) H0: Principals’ student mentorship practices have no statistically significant influence on students’ retention in public-day secondary schools in Nakuru County, Kenya ii) H0: Principals’ student motivational practices have no statistically significant influence on students’ retention in public day secondary schools in Nakuru County, Kenya iii) H0: Principals’ student disciplinary practices have no statistically significant influence on students’ retention in public-day secondary schools in Nakuru County iv) H0: Principals’ student financial support practices have no statistically significant influence on students’ retention in public-day secondary schools in Nakuru County 1.6 Justification of the study The commitment of government and other stakeholders in the provision of resources for secondary education sub-sector would not be realized unless deliberate efforts were taken to ensure all students transit from one level of secondary school to the next. This 9 study would contribute to the existing literature on principals’ management practices that can enhance student retention especially in public day secondary schools. Research on student retention links student retention to other factors and there was hardly any attempt to relate principals’ student management practices such as mentorship, motivation, discipline and financial support to student retention in secondary schools. This study would therefore add to the existing body of knowledge in the area of student retention by assessing the influence of principals’ management practices and student retention. 1.7 Significance of the Study The information obtained from this study is useful to school principals, board of management, teachers and future researchers in this field. School principals and their boards of management could use the findings of this study to adopt appropriate student management practices in their schools. Moreover, the findings from this study can significantly influence the way principals approach mentorship, motivation, discipline, and financial support strategies for managing student affairs. Principals can leverage these innovative strategies to foster a conducive atmosphere for student growth and development in schools. By creating a nurturing and supportive environment, principals can positively impact student retention. Teachers would directly benefit from the improved principals’ student management practices because they were directly involved in managing students in the schools. Furthermore, the enriched empirical data generated by this research will serve as a valuable resource for researchers looking to investigate deeper into the jurisdiction of principals' student management practices. The insights garnered from this study can not 10 only contribute to the existing body of knowledge but also shed light on how these practices influence student retention rates, particularly in public day secondary schools. Researchers can find this information particularly enlightening as they continue to explore ways to improve educational outcomes and student retention within the education sector. 1.8 Scope of the Study This study was conducted in public day secondary schools in Nakuru County. Public day secondary schools play a crucial role in the education system, catering to a significant portion of the student population. This study focused on public day secondary schools in Nakuru County to assess the influence of principals' student management practices on student retention. The choice of public day secondary schools is justified by their accessibility to a wide range of students, often including those from diverse socio-economic backgrounds, making them an ideal setting to examine the influence of various management practices on student retention. Furthermore, understanding the effects of principals' mentorship, motivation, discipline, and financial support practices within this context can provide valuable insights into improving student retention strategies in schools. The study used Tinto (1975, 1993) student integration theory to assess the influence of principals’ management practices of mentorship, motivation, discipline and financial support on student retention in public day secondary schools in Nakuru County. The participants of the study were SCDE, school principals, teachers and students in selected schools drawn from the 11 sub-counties in Nakuru County. 11 The methodological scope of this study employed a mixed-methods research approach, guided by the philosophical foundation of pragmatism. The purpose was to collect and integrate both quantitative and qualitative data, thereby allowing a comprehensive understanding of the research problem without being restricted by issues of truth and reality. Specifically, it utilized the concurrent triangulation mixed-methods research design to improve the validity and reliability of data on student retention in Nakuru County public day secondary schools by integrating both qualitative and quantitative approaches within the same study. The study used a combination of cluster method, proportionate sampling, simple random sampling, and purposive sampling techniques to select the sample population. The sample population consisted of 363 teachers, 90 principals, 11 Sub-County Directors of Education (SCDE), and 110 students. The number of schools selected from each sub-county was determined using proportionate sampling. The SCDE and students provided qualitative information, while principals, and teachers, provided quantitative information. The SCDE and students provided qualitative information obtained by use interview schedules and focus group discussion respectively while principals and teachers provided quantitative data through questionnaires specifically developed to answer the research questions. Data was collected in schools during official school hours and all information was obtained for a period of one school term (3 months) in the year 2022. 1.9 Limitations of the Study 1. The study encountered a limitation due to the insufficient availability of local literature on the influence of principals’ student management practices on 12 retention. To address this, related literature was reviewed from broader contexts to provide a clear background and clarify the study variables. The analysis and discussion were then conducted with reference to this wider body of literature to strengthen the study’s conclusions. 2. The study's examination of principals’ student management practices was limited by the complexity and variability of these practices, which are influenced by specific factors and circumstances within individual school contexts. This complexity posed a challenge in capturing the full scope of the practices through a single research design. To mitigate this, a mixed method approach was employed, combining quantitative and qualitative designs to offer a more comprehensive understanding of the relationships between the study variables. 3. The busy schedules of principals, teachers, and students were initially seen as a potential limitation, as they could have made scheduling interviews challenging. However, this issue was effectively managed by booking appointments well in advance and rescheduling as needed to accommodate participants. As a result, this did not significantly impact the data collection process, and the interviews were conducted as planned. 4. The study did not include all principals, teachers, and students from public day schools, which could be considered a limitation in terms of achieving full representation. However, rigorous sampling methods and techniques were used to ensure minimal sampling errors and to provide an adequate representation of the overall population, thereby reducing the potential impact of this limitation on the study’s findings. 13 1.10 Delimitations of the Study This study was delimited to only four principals’ student management practices that were adapted from Tinto(1975, 1993) student integration theory. Thus, other student management practices applicable in schools were not explored. Additionally, the study focused on principals, teachers and students in public day secondary schools only in Nakuru County and SCDE as the key participants. Thus, principals, teachers and students in boarding and private schools did not participate in the study. Consequently, any generalization made on the basis of the findings of this study was done with caution because the findings applied only to the context in public day secondary schools. 1.11 Assumptions of the Study This study assumed that teachers and students would accurately describe their principals’ management practices in student mentorship, student motivation, student discipline and financial support. This study also assumed that students could express themselves on how principals’ management practices influence their retention in schools. The study further assumed that the school-maintained records of student retention. 14 1.12 Operational Definition of Key Terms Student Retention Refers to the ability of public secondary schools to attract learners for enrollment in form one and complete form four in the same institution. Completion Rate Refers to the percentage of students of the same cohort who successfully complete the form four course in the same school where they were enrolled in form one. Concurrent Triangulation Mixed- Methods Research Design Refers to a specific approach where both quantitative and qualitative data are collected and analyzed concurrently (at the same time) and then compared or triangulated to provide a more comprehensive and robust understanding of the research problem. Student Management Practices Are innovative methods, strategies or programmes that are developed by principals to ensure that students enrolled in their schools are retained without interruptions until they complete their form four course. These practices include mentorship, motivation, discipline and financial support. Student Mentorship Practices Principals’ activities aimed at guiding, teaching, influencing, and supporting students such role modeling and career guidance and counseling Student Motivation Practices Activities of principals to encourage students to develop goals, academic and social commitments in school such as extracurricular activities and academic incentives 15 Student Disciplinary Practices Refers to the specific actions and strategies implemented by principals to manage student behavior in schools. This includes the Communication of rules and regulations, guidance and counseling, and involvement of parents/guardians. Student Financial Support Refers to activities of principals aimed at supporting needy children to develop goals, academic and social commitments in the school through bursaries, scholarships, lunch programmes, school uniforms, sanitary towels, etc. 16 CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 2.0 Introduction This chapter presents a review of relevant literature which is organized according to research objectives notably: Principals’ management practices, student retention, influence of principals’ mentorship practices on student retention; influence of principals’ motivational practices on student retention; influence of principals’ disciplinary practices on student retention; and influence of principals’ financial support practices on student retention. The theoretical and conceptual frameworks as well as summary and research gaps are then discussed at the end of this chapter. 2.1 Principals’ Mentorship Practices and Student Retention The influence of principals' mentorship practices on student retention is crucial, as inclusive educational processes that recognize diverse student backgrounds are essential for fostering a supportive learning environment (Crosling, 2017). Effective mentorship can help address risk factors like academic challenges, psychological issues, and financial constraints, which are significant contributors to student dropout (Shakari, 2021). Fulk (2020) investigated the use of mentorship as a retention strategy among Caucasian principals. The findings suggested that pre-constructed, theoretical challenges for their mentor to go through with them were of little benefit to the principals. They discovered that in comparison to hypothetical difficulties, the day-to-day features of the job produced considerably more organic challenges that gave greater opportunity to exercise analytical and problem-solving abilities. Admiration for their mentors' work, 17 faith in their accomplishment, the capacity to approach a subject from a different angle, and systemic understanding were all traits that the principals considered to be beneficial. The study, however, did not look at the influence of mentorship practices and student retention. Grande et al., (2018)investigated how students and professionals in computer education may have role models who represent diverse ways of engaging in the field and/or career. Their findings contradicted traditional notions of role models as individuals who set the standards, instead portraying them as capable of changing on many scales (including none) depending on their amount of authority. Students, professors, and other professions serve as role models. The researchers argue that role models' potential must be viewed in terms of how computer engagement is formed in social interaction. Another study conducted by Anachuna and Obi (2021) in Nigeria, focused on principals’ mentorship practices for teacher retention. Anachuna and Obis’ study established that there were no formal structures in schools to guide principals in the provision of mentorship services to teachers. Mentorship relationships were encouraged after normal school hours and teachers chose their own mentors who had no formal training in mentorship. The findings in Anachuna and Obis’ study were in line with assertions by Raschdorf (2015) that for mentorship relationships to be more effective, they should not be restricted to formal visitations. This study looked at teacher retention and not student retention. Poolos (2019) defines student retention as efforts and strategies to anticipate and identify student needs prior to high school enrollment. Conventionally principals are responsible for student personnel management in their schools. Thus student 18 mentorship was an important principals’ management practice that had the potential to influence retention of students throughout their secondary school education cycle. Poolos (2019) further observes that one of the recommended strategies to increase teacher-student interaction is to assign teacher advisors, or mentors to students and can also advice on subject selection. The role of the principal was not only to mentor but to create a school environment in which teachers and students can freely engage in both formal and informal mentorship activities. Effective mentorship could perhaps adopt the retention strategies suggested by Beatty‐Guenter (1994) that seeks to sort students into categories, connect students to the schools, support the students by meeting their needs, and transform both the students and the schools. McMullen and Eaton (2021) conducted a study that is the impact of a school-based intervention on life skills in secondary schools in Uganda, from the perspectives of teachers and students. This was a qualitative study embedded within the cluster- controlled intervention trial Living Well. The intervention included experiential learning for both students and teachers; consequently, this study considers their understanding and perspectives. A generic phenomenological approach was used to collect data in order to consider the lived experience of the teachers and students who completed the Living Well intervention and to identify any shared experiences. Life skills are the psychosocial abilities for adaptive and positive behaviour that enable people to effectively deal with the challenges and demands of daily life. Life skills education programmes are intended to facilitate the practice and reinforcement of psychosocial skills in a manner that is developmentally and culturally appropriate, thereby contributing to social, emotional, and behavioural development (Kanyi et al., 2019). 19 Decision-making, effective communication, interpersonal relationships, self-awareness, empathy, emotional management, conflict resolution, and assertiveness comprise life skills. The development of life skills requires a classroom environment that is safe and conducive to the practice and reinforcement of these skills (Kanyi, 2019). All of the teachers praised the overall impact of the Living Well (LW) program on their students. When asked to elaborate, the most common response was an impact on the emotional health and well-being of the students. They delighted in describing and discussing their emotions, which led to a personal awakening. It touches them on a profound level, and we learn that it has altered their lives (Teacher B). One was suicidal, but through the programa and subsequent follow-up he was able to open up and share his struggles with me. His lifestyle has changed (Teacher E). Three teachers described how students are now better able to articulate their emotions. (Teacher B). Two of the teachers reflected on the fact that behavioural problems are frequently the result of underlying social or emotional issues and stated that schools and communities had not previously considered this. FMLTA (2019) and Ongige et al., (2020) concluded that teacher retention could be achieved through both formal and informal mentorship activities. Studies in social interaction in schools seem to focus on principal leadership, collaboration from teachers, professional development, school environment and culture, and school organization. There was inadequate evidence in literature on how principals’ mentorship practices influence student retention especially in secondary schools. Principals as school administrators should be at the top of the ladder in providing mentorship services in their schools. Mentorship was usually a multi-faceted process that involves guiding, teaching, influencing, and supporting (Njangi (2019). In a school 20 set-up, the principals can mentor their deputies who will in turn mentor their heads of departments. Teachers would receive their mentorship services from their heads of departments and finally, students would be mentored by their teachers. However, mentorship does not necessarily follow such a formal structure and therefore it was not unusual to find principals providing mentorship services directly to their students or teachers. Magut and Kiharas (2019) in Nairobi County, Kenya posit that new student orientation is critical in facilitating learners' adaptation to a new learning environment. This implies that acquainting students with school routines and reducing student- administration conflicts may result in frequent and avoidable disciplinary measures. Additionally, they observed that orientation helps students acclimate to a new learning environment. However, their study did not relate orientation with student retention. Through mentorship activities, principals were able to develop team culture and vision among teachers and students and direct factors relating to school climate, safety, turnout, and school accomplishment in a way that enhances student retention (Schargel et al., 2007) According to Thoonen et al., (2012) principals’ mentorship practices can influence the students’ decision to either stay or drop out of school. Hallinger and Heck(2014) also observed that the influence of principals on teachers and learning conditions in school makes it possible for principals to effectively guide students. Tumuhimbise (2019)’s study in Private and Government Secondary Schools in Kabale District, Uganda, acknowledges the role of parental involvement and community sensitization, often part of mentorship programs, in supporting economically challenged students, but stops short of linking these to retention outcomes. Oyugi 21 (2016) touches on mentorship practices like guidance and counseling but focuses more on their role in creating a supportive environment rather than directly on retention. The existing literature suggests that while mentorship is integral to effective school leadership, its specific influence on retention, particularly in public day secondary schools, requires further investigation to establish a clear connection. In Kenya, studies by Mbijiwe (2013) and Awuor (2018) highlight how economic hardships and inadequate resources persistently impact student retention, despite efforts such as government subsidies. Principals who implement strong mentorship programs can mitigate these challenges by providing guidance and support tailored to students' individual needs, thereby enhancing retention rates. Njangi (2019) highlights that mentorship, alongside leadership and target setting, has a considerable influence on students’ academic performance, which indirectly suggests a potential positive effect on retention. However, the study does not explicitly connect mentorship to retention, leaving a gap in understanding this relationship. Arop et al. (2020) reinforce the importance of leadership techniques, which could include mentorship, in improving student outcomes, yet their focus remains on academic achievement rather than retention. Maina and Kariuki (2021) studied the influence of career guidance programmes on change of study programme among students in Kenyan educational institutions. The study adopted a quantitative cross-sectional survey method; the study concluded that career guidance programmes had a positive and significant influence on students’ change of programme of study. In particular, career day/exhibition/conference, guest speakers’ talk and career information from universities, KUCCPS website and google 22 search were found to be the key influential factors of change their programmes of study among first year undergraduate students. Kariithi, Kimani and Mukolwe (2022) conducted a study on the mentorship interventions as predictors of discipline among public secondary school students in Kiambu County, Kenya. Different ways in which the school administration was involved in mentorship programmes included awareness of mentorship programmes in the schools, involvement in the initiation of mentorship programme, creation of a structured mentorship programmes in the schools , assistances issues arising from mentorship programmes, provision of supervision roles, assisting in determining the criteria used to allocate mentor/mentees, establishing goals for mentorship programmes and having meeting with students to ensure the goals were met. Mentorship programmes in schools were found to help students formulate solutions to them. However, this study did not look at the influence of mentorship programmes on student retention. A study by Omondi (2020) emphasizes the importance of student orientation in public- day secondary schools, noting that conducting orientation sessions helps to familiarize new students with the school's routines and expectations. These sessions, which typically involve the presentation of key school policies and procedures, have been shown to ease the transition process, thereby increasing student comfort and belonging (Ngoya, 2021). The familiarity that new students develop with the school environment can significantly influence their retention rates, as they feel more connected and engaged from the outset (Mugo, 2019). Additionally, the preparation that orientation provides enables students to understand the academic and social dynamics they will encounter, reducing feelings of disorientation and anxiety (Owino, 2018). Consequently, schools that prioritize effective orientation strategies are likely to 23 witness improved student retention outcomes (Wanjohi, 2022). Therefore, fostering a supportive environment through orientation aligns with mentorship practices that are crucial for student retention. A study by Nyang’au (2021) illustrates that introducing staff from various departments during orientation plays a vital role in shaping students’ understanding of departmental expectations and support systems. By familiarizing students with faculty and staff, schools reinforce the sense of community and accessibility, which can positively impact students’ motivation and engagement (Obara, 2020). When students can relate to their teachers and counselors, they are more likely to seek assistance, answer questions, and participate actively in their educational journey, thus contributing to higher retention rates (Kibera & Makori, 2021). Furthermore, establishing these initial connections can foster an environment where students feel supported and guided, leading to enhanced academic performance and greater educational commitment (Mugambi, 2022). Research suggests that a collaborative rapport between students and school staff is essential for nurturing students' long-term commitment to their education (Kamau, 2019). Therefore, schools that effectively introduce staff are more likely to create a supportive atmosphere conducive to student retention. A study by Kiptoo (2023) highlights that schools that support orientation for subject selection significantly aid students in making informed career choices. This strategic support helps students connect their interests and strengths with available subjects, thereby promoting academic satisfaction and success (Masaku, 2021). By involving students in the decision-making process regarding their academic paths, the school empowers them to take ownership of their education, which significantly enhances their 24 retention (Obiri, 2022). When students feel invested in their academic journeys, they are more likely to remain engaged throughout their schooling (Irungu, 2020). Furthermore, aligning subject selection with career aspirations can lead to a more engaged and motivated student body, as learners see a direct link between their education and future opportunities (Nyang'au & Muthoni, 2018). Hence, comprehensive support for subject selection can be a critical mentorship practice that fosters student retention. A study by Mwita (2021) underscores the significance of inviting professional speakers during career days as a motivational strategy for students. These events introduce students to various career paths and provide insights from practitioners, bridging the gap between education and the labor market (Kamau, 2021). Exposure to real-world experiences and success stories can awaken students’ aspirations and fuel their ambition, making their educational efforts feel more pertinent (Wambua, 2023). Moreover, engaging with professionals can enhance students' understanding of the skills required in different careers, thereby strengthening their commitment to their chosen paths (Njoroge, 2022). The presence of role models can act as a powerful mentorship tool, inspiring students not only to persevere in their studies but also to plan strategically for their futures (Karanja, 2019). Therefore, career-day initiatives, bolstered by professional speakers, contribute significantly to student motivation and retention in schools. A study by Aoko (2022) indicates that schools that support life skills training create an enabling environment for students, which play an influential role in their retention rates. Life skills programs equip students with essential coping mechanisms, conflict 25 resolution strategies, and interpersonal skills, enabling them to navigate the challenges of adolescent life (Mwangi, 2021). By fostering these competencies, schools contribute to students' overall well-being, making them feel more capable and confident, which directly impacts their decision to stay enrolled (Elimu, 2020). Furthermore, the skills acquired through such training can help reduce instances of dropout due to personal or social issues, as students learn to manage stress and build supportive relationships (Kamau, 2022). Research has shown that a well-rounded education that includes life skills training enhances students' emotional intelligence, which is crucial for long-term academic engagement (Ogonda, 2019). In this respect, life skills initiatives serve as a fundamental mentorship practice that significantly contributes to student retention. A study by Wekesa (2023) explores how schools ensure students acquire skills that allow them to integrate into society after completing their studies, emphasizing its critical role in enhancing retention. Preparing students for societal integration not only focuses on academic excellence but also on developing practical skills necessary for employment and citizenship (Osoro, 2021). Schools that emphasize both academic and life-oriented skills help students perceive a clear purpose for their education (Obere, 2022). This perspective fosters a greater commitment to their studies, as students see how their current educational experiences shape their future roles in society (Kipkoech & Kipruto, 2019). Additionally, effective educational programs that prepare students for real-life challenges build a sense of community and belonging, making students less likely to disengage (Munyao, 2021). Thus, integrating skill development into the curriculum emerges as a pivotal mentorship practice that influences student retention rates positively. 26 2.2 Principals’ Motivation Practices and Student Retention Motivation has been defined differently by different scholars. For instance, Asih and Hasanah (2021) posited that motivation is the force that directs students to achieve their anticipated goals for schooling. Motivation in this study refers to activities of principals aimed at encouraging students to develop goals, academic and social commitments in school such as extracurricular activities and academic incentives. There is a large body of research-based information available in literature on theories of motivation. According to Kariuki and Mbugua (2018) motivation is the heartbeat to students’ retention because it keeps learners active and alive to remain at school until completion (p.2317). Studies on motivation and student retention include: (Ajoke et al., 2015; Kelmendi & Nawar, 2016; Waigwa, 2016; Ongige et al., 2020). Suleiman et al., (2019) investigated the impact of extracurricular activities on academic achievement in secondary schools in Malaysia's Kwara State. Interview and observation approaches were utilized to acquire pertinent data from the participants. The observation approach was utilized to supplement the results of the interview. Students' academic progress was impacted by extracurricular services, according to the data. The findings are consistent with those of Gikonyo et al. (2022), who discovered that co-curricular activities improved academic performance, social skills, and mental health among Kenyan secondary school students In addition; their findings indicated that a lack of extracurricular facilities and employees was one of the problems impeding the successful delivery of extracurricular services. According to the report, schools should provide enough extracurricular facilities (such as a football pitch, volleyball court, and a hall for social events). 27 In Nigeria, Ajoke et al., (2015) evaluated the impact of co-curricular activities on the success of Senior Secondary School students. Press club and Literary and Debating Society are the variables to examine, as well as their engagement duration and academic accomplishment. Eight of the seventeen secondary schools are chosen at random, each with one hundred pupils. The data gathering questionnaires include questions about students' personal information as well as twelve questions on the press club, literary society, and debating society. The mock examination results suggest that co-curricular activities have a positive substantial impact on senior secondary school pupils' academic success in English. The survey also indicated a lack of commitment and encouragement on the side of school administration and instructors, as well as poorly designed programs and a lack of financial support from the school authorities. Their research, however, did not examine into the influence of these motivation components on student retention. Philemon and Mkulu (2020) explored the impact of motivation on students’ retention in Public secondary schools in Rorya District, Tanzania. He adopted the mixed methods research approach using the sequential explanatory research design. The study was guided by Maslow’s needs hierarchy theory of motivation. The findings indicated that motivation significantly influenced secondary school students’ retention and recommended that all educational stakeholders should actively participate in motivating students by ensuring a safe and secure environment to complete studies. Principals of secondary schools are key stakeholders in secondary schools hence the recommendation by Philemon and Mkulu (2020) falls directly on them. Students can be intrinsically or extrinsically motivated. According to Oyiego et al., (2022) intrinsic motivation is in built in human beings and is adopted from birth or early childhood and 28 plays an important role in an individuals’ physical, social and cognitive development. Kelmendi and Nawar (2016) analyzed the relationship between motivation and student retention among university students in UK. The analysis confirmed that there is a relationship between motivation and student retention, and extrinsic motivation had a larger impact. This finding is specifically significant to principals as they innovate ways of motivating their students with the aim of retaining them. Principals’ management practices that are found in literature include developing student recognition schemes, academic incentives, and extracurricular activities. However, this study was conducted in U.K universities and not in Kenya. Kouzes and Posner (2017) principals who hold high expectations for, and believe in their students helps them to develop self-confidence, courage and volition to live up to the principals’ expectations (Kouzes & Posner, 2017). Specifically, Kouzes and Posner (2017) assert that: Believing in others is an extraordinarily powerful force in propelling greater performance celebrations and rituals, when done in an authentic way and from the heart, build a strong sense of collective identity and community spirit that can carry a group through extraordinarily tough times (Kouzes & Posner, 2017). These assertions compel principals to develop innovative ways of appreciating students’ contributions and to create a culture of celebrating the values and victories by creating a spirit of community among the students. Appreciation should not only be placed on academic excellence alone but also on non-academic activities. The principals should celebrate student success passionately and work to develop a strong identity among students and teachers that will hold them together as a school even during difficult times. 29 Ongige et al., (2020) studied the relationship between student motivation practices and students’ retention in public secondary schools in Kisii County. The study was guided by Vroom's expectancy and McGregor's X and Y theories. The findings show that student motivation practices positively correlated with student retention in public secondary schools (r =.717). Kirondo (2014) examined the strategies that teachers use to create, maintain and protect motivation in classroom settings in Kinondoni municipality, Tanzania. The study adopted the mixed methods approach and established that open exchange of ideas, accepting mistakes and supportive environment were used as strategies of motivating students in classrooms. Student motivation was hampered by poor mastery of content, large class sizes, and lack of teaching aids. Waigwa (2016) investigated the impact of motivating tactics on secondary school chemistry students' performance in Thika-East District, Kiambu County, Kenya. The study's main findings were that the most commonly used motivational strategy by Chemistry teachers promoted extrinsic motivation, that using motivational strategies improved learners' performance in secondary school chemistry, and that there was no significant difference in the effect of motivational strategies on the performance of boys and girls in secondary school chemistry. The study concluded that the application of motivating tactics led to improved student performance in secondary school Chemistry. The study, however, did not look at how these tactics influence student retention. The studies by Ongige et al., (2020) and Kirondo (2014) are specifically important for principals whose management practices should target the motivation levels of students. Kirondos findings also emphasize the need for principals to motivate teachers as well since they play a crucial role in motivating students in classrooms. Thus as principals 30 innovate ways of ensuring that students are motivated by providing academic incentives and recognition they should also broaden the scope to cover the teachers so that the benefits of such strategies on student retention can be maximized. Jepkoech, Muriel, and Ogoti (2015) emphasize that principals' efforts to foster open communication, provide bursaries, and enhance school culture significantly contribute to retaining students in secondary schools. These practices create an inclusive environment where students feel valued and supported, thereby reducing dropout rates. However, Awuor (2018) presents a contrasting view, noting that government subsidies, while intended to motivate students to stay in school, had an insignificant impact on retention in Rongai Sub-County. This suggests that motivational practices may need to be more targeted and holistic to effectively enhance retention. Oyugi (2016) adds that the provision of sanitary towels, guidance, and a secure environment—motivational strategies aimed at addressing specific student needs—positively affects retention, especially among female students. Collectively, these studies underscore the importance of motivational practices but also highlight the complexity of effectively implementing them to achieve desired retention outcomes. Okindo et al., (2020) conducted a correlational study to examine the relationship between principals' transactional leadership style and students' conformity to rules in public secondary schools in Nakuru County, Kenya. The target population for the study was 338 principals, 338 deputy principals, 3426 teachers, and 116,374 students in 338 public secondary schools. The respondents reported that principals call attention to what students can get for tasks they have accomplished. These findings suggest that principals in the studied schools use transactional leadership style to manage students' 31 behaviour through motivating behaviour with rewards and punishments. The results showed that 68.3% of the respondents stated that principals provide rewards or recognition when students reach their goals, while 65.9% of the respondents stated that principals tell students what to do if they want to be rewarded. These findings suggest that principals in the studied schools set standards and expect behaviour from their students, which aligns with the principles of transactional leadership style. Overall, the study indicates that principals in public secondary schools in Nakuru County, Kenya use transactional leadership style to enhance students' conformity to school rules. The findings are consistent across both teachers' and principals' data, suggesting that this is a commonly employed leadership style in the schools studied. The study recommends that principals should provide rewards and recognition constantly to students who conform to school rules, while using reprimands for those who do not. However, principals should also be cautious when meting out punishment to students, as it may trigger non-conformity to school rules. Finally, the study recommends that suspension, and even repeated suspension, should be used as a tool for dealing with students demonstrating chronic behaviour problems that disrupt the school climate. Waweru and Orodho (2014) investigated how school principals' management practices affect students' academic achievement in national exams in public secondary schools in Kiambu County, Kenya. A descriptive correlation research design was used in this study. 26 principals from public secondary schools in Kiambu County were chosen using a combination of stratified and basic random selection approaches. Most of the identified management factors, such as effective human and physical resource planning, 32 organizational strategies, curriculum leadership, control measures, and students' academic achievement, were found to be linked in most of the county's best performing schools. These management strategies were rarely applied in the county’s low- performing schools. Lwakasana & Getange (2017) studied the effects of income generating activities in public secondary schools in Transmara Sub-County, Narok County, Kenya. The population for the study comprised of all principals, teachers and bursars and used combinations of purposive and stratified random sampling techniques to select a sample of 13 principals, 322 teachers and 13 bursars. Using primary data, the study revealed that income from income generating activities eased burden on parents, increased enrolment in schools, improved academic performance and was used to motivate both students and teachers. Such income was would cater for physical facilities, and cater for bursaries for needy students. Based on the findings, the study recommended that IGAs should be encouraged and enhance to support the academic, cater for needy students and improve physical facilities on schools. In Kenya, co-curricular activities are recognized as essential for holistic student development. Studies have shown that active participation in these activities can significantly enhance student retention in schools. For instance, a study by Kimanzi (2022) highlighted that schools which encourage students to engage in sports, clubs, and other extracurricular activities tend to have higher retention rates. This is because such activities foster a sense of belonging and community among students, which is crucial for their overall satisfaction and commitment to the school. 33 According to Muthee (2020), schools that promote active participation in co-curricular activities tend to have higher retention rates because these activities help students to feel more connected to the school environment, thereby reducing dropout rates. In Nakuru County, public day secondary schools have increasingly recognized the importance of encouraging students to actively participate in co-curricular activities as a strategy for enhancing student retention. Co-curricular activities provide students with opportunities to develop social skills, leadership qualities, and a sense of belonging, which are crucial for their overall development and engagement in school. Rewarding students who excel in co-curricular activities is another practice that has been shown to positively influence student retention in public day secondary schools in Nakuru County. Recognizing and rewarding students for their achievements in sports, arts, and other extracurricular activities not only motivates them to continue participating but also enhances their self-esteem and commitment to their studies. Kariuki and Mugo (2019) found that schools that implement reward systems for co-curricular excellence see improved student morale and a reduction in absenteeism, which ultimately contributes to higher retention rates. The rewards act as an incentive for students to stay in school and strive for excellence in both academic and non-academic pursuits. Academic performance is a critical factor in student retention, and schools in Nakuru County have adopted various strategies to recognize and reward exemplary academic achievement. Awards and recognition ceremonies for top-performing students serve as a motivational tool that encourages students to put in more effort in their studies. Research by Njoroge (2018) highlights that students who are acknowledged for their academic success are more likely to remain in school and complete their education. The positive reinforcement provided by such awards contributes to a culture of academic 34 excellence and fosters an environment where students feel valued and supported in their academic endeavors. Regular academic advising sessions have been identified as an essential practice in promoting student retention in public day secondary schools. These sessions provide students with guidance on how to improve their academic performance and address any challenges they may be facing in their studies. In Nakuru County, schools that consistently organize academic advising sessions have reported higher retention rates. Mwangi (2021) emphasizes that academic advising helps students to set realistic academic goals, understand their strengths and weaknesses, and develop effective study habits, all of which are crucial for academic success and retention. Acknowledging students with good behavior openly is another practice that has been linked to improved student retention in public day secondary schools in Nakuru County. Positive behavior reinforcement, such as public acknowledgment, helps to create a supportive school environment where students feel respected and valued. According to Wambugu (2020), schools that openly recognize good behavior among students foster a sense of discipline and responsibility, which in turn encourages students to remain in school. Such practices contribute to building a positive school culture that promotes student retention. Assigning responsibilities to students with good behavior is also a common practice in Nakuru County's public day secondary schools aimed at enhancing student retention. By entrusting well-behaved students with leadership roles and responsibilities, schools help to build their confidence and leadership skills, which are important for their personal development and engagement with the school community. Wanjiru (2019) 35 notes that students who are given responsibilities are more likely to develop a strong sense of belonging and commitment to the school, leading to higher retention rates. This practice not only rewards good behavior but also empowers students to take an active role in the school community, further reinforcing their decision to stay in school. According to Muiruri (2019), recognition and rewards for achievements in sports, arts, and other extracurricular domains can motivate students to remain engaged and committed to their education. This practice not only boosts the morale of the students but also encourages others to participate actively, thereby enhancing overall student retention. The research concluded that rewarding students who excel in co-curricular activities is a common practice in many Kenyan schools. Awarding students for exemplary academic performance is another strategy employed by schools to improve student retention. Research indicates that recognition of academic excellence can significantly impact students’ motivation and persistence. A study conducted in Kirinyaga County found that schools which regularly award top- performing students tend to have lower dropout rates. This is because such awards serve as an incentive for students to strive for academic success, thereby increasing their commitment to their education. Regular academic advising sessions are crucial for student retention in Kenyan schools. These sessions provide students with guidance on how to improve their academic performance and set realistic educational goals. According to a study by Kimanzi (2022), schools that organize frequent academic advising sessions tend to have higher retention rates. These sessions help students to identify their strengths and weaknesses, thereby enabling them to make informed decisions about their academic paths. 36 Acknowledging students with good behavior is an effective strategy for enhancing student retention. Positive reinforcement through public acknowledgment can encourage students to maintain good conduct, which in turn creates a conducive learning environment. Research by Muiruri (2019) suggests that schools which openly acknowledge and reward good behavior tend to have higher student retention rates. This practice not only promotes discipline but also fosters a positive school culture. Assigning responsibilities to students with good behavior is another practice that can positively influence student retention. When students are given leadership roles or responsibilities, they feel valued and integral to the school community. This sense of responsibility and belonging can significantly reduce dropout rates. A study in Nakuru County by Njihia and Mungai (2019) found that schools which assign responsibilities to well-behaved students tend to have higher retention rates, as these students often act as role models for their peers. 2.3 Principals’ Disciplinary Practices and Student Retention Dimov et al., (2017), attempts to define discipline. They argue that the meaning of discipline can be explained from positive and negative perspectives. In the negative perspective, discipline ‘means to control, to punish, to be submissive to rules and authority, to suspend and expel’ (Dimov et al., 2017). According to Dupper (2010) the negative perspective meanings of discipline are in most cases attempts to solve and control school indiscipline or misbehavior. also identified two approaches used to define discipline: traditional view and progressive view. The traditional view suggests that to discipline children is necessary adult control and influence so that children can develop self-control. The progressive view considers children as being naturally good and therefore no action should be taken to discipline them since they will learn self- control on their own, through their development and self-experience (Dimov et al., 37 2017). The definitions emanating from Dimov et al., (2017) seem to explain the root cause of the disciplinary issues in our educational institutions today. The progressive meaning of discipline seems to have been adopted by parents who bring up their children as ‘naturally good people’ who will learn how to control themselves naturally as they grow. Indeed, attempts by principals to discipline students in schools have sometimes resulted in strong protests from parents of concerned students. The government of Kenya has so far proscribed corporal punishment in Kenya schools. These arguments are particularly important to principals and deputy principals who are usually charged with the responsibility of maintaining discipline in their schools. The traditional view of discipline according to Dimov et al., (2017) is applicable given the prevailing situation in educational institutions and especially in secondary schools. Secondary school students are still minors since most of them have not attained the age of majority which 18 years in Kenya and are therefore under control of adults. Principals should innovatively develop mechanisms that will ensure that students are disciplined such developing safe and secure schools, effective communication of school rules and regulations and a fair student disciplinary process. Ilyasin (2019) perception on discipline states that: Discipline is an accurate control mechanism towards our body. Through discipline, our physics is trained to be ideal and skillful. Moreover, discipline is a repeat examination and correction in order to build dexterity character which automatically works in our physics. In addition, discipline increases our skills, power, and physically functions as well as driving our body to the essence of being useful for other creatures and follows every rule set. In other words, not only to increase physical health and power, discipline can also make people be conquered (Ilyasin 2019). Ilyasin (2019) argues that disciplined persons should not have to be “slaves” to do whatever other people ask them to do, but should have self-control over themselves. 38 The implications of this argument to principals are that they should strike a balance between the traditional and progressive perspectives of discipline when devising mechanisms to enhance student retention in their schools. Management practices that adopt the traditional perspective of discipline would be advisable so long as they do not contravene government policy on student discipline. Available literature studies identify management practices on discipline such as use of school rules and regulations, school safety and security and fair disciplinary processes. Empirical studies on strategies used in schools to manage student discipline include: (Prasetyarini et al., 2020; Emekako, 2016; Uzoechina et al., 2015; Anayo 2014; Nthiga, 2014; Apondi, 2014). Prasetyarini et al., (2020) studied strategies used by teachers to cope with disciple problems in selected schools on central Java, Indonesia. The study employed qualitative research approach and used data from interviews as primary source of information that was analyzed and interpreted. The common disciplinary problems facing teachers were noisy classrooms, wrong or incomplete attributes and lateness. Teachers used corrective, assertive and preventive disciplinary control measures. The study recommended setting up of classroom rules. Emekako (2016) studied disciplinary measures used by secondary school teachers by investigating how teachers administer these discipline measures in the verge of sustaining a peaceful and disciplined learning environment. The selection of participants was established through stratified random, convenience and purposeful sampling techniques. Empirically, descriptive and inferential statistics and content analysis informed the findings of this study. It emerged from this study that despite the varieties of disciplinary measures available to teachers after the abolishment of corporal punishment, teachers still put to use only a few of the 39 available measures and this had an effect on student retention. The study also reports that most of these measures are not very effective and suitable as corporal punishment. Uzoechina et al., (2015) investigated teachers’ awareness and usage of non-violent strategies for the maintenance of discipline in Nigerian Secondary Schools. 200 teachers were selected for descriptive survey out of 996 teachers. Stratified random sampling was used such that the schools were stratified into co-educational and single- sex schools, and from each randomly selected school, 10 teachers were selected. The study found that there exist significant differences in levels of awareness and usage of non-violent discipline strategies among teachers in single-sex and coeducational secondary schools. Students have to notice empathy on the part of teachers, even when errant, and possibly are told the consequences of repeating such errant acts in situations where they had not been pre-warned. Corporal punishment scars, maims and at times kills students and should be stopped in Nigerian schools, and when this is likely to trigger dropout intentions. The study however, did not how these non-violent strategies contribute towards student retention. Owan and Agunwa (2019) in a Nigerian researched on teachers' job performance in terms of instructional delivery, attendance to classes, note writing, and record keeping is highly connected to principals' supervisory, leadership, and communication competencies Teachers' work performance in terms of instructional delivery, attendance to classes, note writing, and record keeping is significantly influenced by the supervisory, leadership, and communication abilities of principals (Owan & Agunwa, 2019). Other factors influencing secondary school students' academic achievement include disciplinary control, classroom management, and instructors' motivation. In 40 Nigeria's Cross River State, Arop et al., (2020) evaluated school management practices, teacher effectiveness, and students' academic achievement in mathematics. Arop et al. (2020) found a strong correlation between effective student discipline management and improved academic performance, which indirectly supports student retention. The study underscores that when students are disciplined and the school environment is well-managed, they are more likely to remain in school. Similarly, Magero (2020) emphasizes the importance of guidance and counseling (G&C) as a disciplinary tool in addressing student behavior, suggesting that effective G&C contributes to reducing student misbehavior and potential dropouts. This aligns with Oyugi’s (2016) findings that a safe and secure environment, supported by consistent disciplinary practices, positively impacts student retention. Njangi (2019) also touches on the role of leadership in discipline, indicating that principals who effectively manage student discipline through mentorship see better academic performance, which may translate into higher retention rates. However, the connection between disciplinary practices and retention is not always direct; for instance, Waweru and Orodho (2014) discuss the role of curriculum leadership and control measures in student achievement, which can indirectly influence retention. Thus, while the literature acknowledges the importance of disciplinary practices, it also suggests a need for a more nuanced understanding of how these practices specifically influence student retention. Magero (2020) explored the challenges of establishing guidance and counselling initiatives in public secondary schools in Kenya's Lugari sub-county. G&