COMMUNITY POLICING AND SECURITY ENHANCEMENT IN GASABO DISTRICT, RWANDA JEAN BOSCO KAGAME A RESEARCH THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF A DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY DEGREE IN LAW ENFORCEMENT AND ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE OF MOUNT KENYA UNIVERSITY JULY 2024 DECLARATION AND APROVAL DECLARATION BY THE STUDENT This research thesis is my original work and has not been presented for a degree in any other University or for any other award. Signature Date: 04/07/2024 Jean Bosco Kagame REG NO: PHDLJ/2018/28376 SUPERVISORS’ APPROVAL We confirm that the work reported in this research thesis was carried out by the candidate under our supervision. Signature Date: 05/07/2024 Dr. Joyce Muchemi Assistant Professor - USIU-A ii Signature: Date: 05/07 /2024 Dr. Ruth Thinguri Senior Lecturer, Mount Kenya University DEDICATION I dedicate this research thesis to my wife Mukamisha Naome and my Children Mahoro Angel, Kananga Asher, Akanyana Annie and Uwase Noble. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I express my gratitude to the supervisor Dr. Joyce Muchemi and Dr. Ruth Thinguri who dedicated their time and showed tolerance as I undertook this thesis. I also thank my family who encouraged and supported me even when studies took part of my family time. These people played an important role and without them things would have been tough. iii ABSTRACT Community policing (CP) is readily accepted as the new face of security enhancement in most parts of the world including Europe, United State of America, Australia, Asia, South America and Africa. In Rwanda, the aftermath of 1994 genocide against Tutsi, the security situations were critical and the government adopted mechanisms such as community policing as a strategy for security enhancement. However, Rwanda still struggles with insecurity challenges despite the introduction of community policing. This examination sought to assess community policing in security enhancement in Gasabo District, Rwanda. The specific objectives were: to determine influence of problem solving, police-citizen collaboration, citizen sensitization, information sharing, and peers counseling on security enhancement in Gasabo District, Rwanda. Three theories guided the study, that is, broken windows, securitization and social disorganization theory. It adopted mixed methodology approach and the concurrent triangulation design. The study targeted approximately 139,358 household heads of Gasabo District, 73 Community Policing Committee (CPC) chairpersons, 15 Community Liaison Officers, and 260 Police Officers. The study sampled 576 household heads for quantitative data whereas the CPC chairpersons, Community Liaison Officers, Police Officers and Opinion leaders were used for qualitative data. Multistage sampling technique was used to select the participants. Questionnaire, interview guides and discussion guides were used to collect data. Piloting of the questionnaire was done using 10% of the sample size. Reliability of the questionnaire was tested by Cronbach Alpha. The coefficient value used was 0.7. To ensure validity of the questionnaire, it was reviewed by the supervisors. Validity was also checked using factor analysis. Trustworthiness of the interview and discussion guides were ensured using both dependability and credibility. For dependability, the researcher ensured that every step of the process was clear, while credibility was ensured through use of appropriate research methods. SPSS software version 25.0 was used to analyze the data. Quantitative data was analyzed using descriptive statistics (frequency, percentage, mean and standard deviation) and inferential statistics (regression analysis), which was used to determine the relationship between the factors of the research. Qualitative data from the interview guides was analyzed thematically and presented in narratives. The findings indicated that separately, problem solving, police-citizen collaboration, citizen sensitization, information sharing, and peers counseling had a positive and significant influence on security enhancement. Further, results indicated that jointly, community policing components explain 46.4% of security enhancement variability. The thematic analysis findings revealed that participants supported the role of community policing in security enhancement. Further, inferential statistics revealed similar outcome that a positive and significant association exists between community policing components and security enhancement. The study concluded that the most significant predictor of security enhancement was peers counseling, followed by problem solving, followed by information sharing, followed by citizen sensitization and lastly police citizen collaboration. The study recommended the need for RNP to strengthen the community policing components iv district, cell and village levels. The focus should be on peers counseling, problem solving, information sharing, citizen sensitization and police citizen collaboration in that order. TABLE OF CONTENT DECLARATION AND APROVAL ................................................................................................. i DEDICATION .......................................................................................................................... ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .......................................................................................................... ii ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................................ iii TABLE OF CONTENT .............................................................................................................. iv LIST OF TABLES .................................................................................................................... viii LIST OF FIGURES .................................................................................................................... x LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS .............................................................................. x CHAPTER ONE:....................................................................................................................... 1 INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Background to the Study ............................................................................................................. 1 1.2 Statement of the Problem ........................................................................................................... 5 1.3 Purpose of the Study ................................................................................................................... 5 1.4 Objectives of the Study ............................................................................................................... 6 1.5 Research Hypotheses .................................................................................................................. 6 1.6 Significance of the Study ............................................................................................................. 6 1.7 Scope of the Study ...................................................................................................................... 7 1.8 Limitations of the Study .............................................................................................................. 7 1.9 Delimitations of the Study........................................................................................................... 8 1.10 Assumption of the Study ........................................................................................................... 8 1.11 Operational Definition of Terms ............................................................................................... 8 CHAPTER TWO: ...................................................................................................................... 9 LITERATURE REVIEW .............................................................................................................. 9 2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 9 2.2 Empirical Literature Review ......................................................................................................10 2.2.1 Community Policing ...............................................................................................................10 2.2.2 Security Enhancement ...........................................................................................................15 2.2.3 Influence of Problem solving on Security Enhancement .......................................................19 2.2.4 Influence of Police-Citizen Collaboration on Security Enhancement .....................................21 2.2.5 Influence of Citizens Sensitization on Security Enhancement ...............................................27 v 2.2.6 Influence of Information Sharing on Security Enhancement .................................................31 2.2.7 Influence of Peers Counselling on Security Enhancement .....................................................36 2.3 Theoretical Framework .............................................................................................................38 2.3.1 Broken Windows Theory ........................................................................................................39 2.3.2 Securitization Theory .............................................................................................................40 2.3.3 Social Disorganization Theory ................................................................................................41 2.4 Conceptual Framework .............................................................................................................42 2.5 Identification of Research Gaps ................................................................................................43 2.6 Recap of Literature Review .......................................................................................................43 CHAPTER THREE: ................................................................................................................. 44 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND DESIGN .............................................................................. 44 3.1 Introduction ..............................................................................................................................44 3.2 Research Methodology .............................................................................................................44 3.3 Research design.........................................................................................................................44 3.4 Location of the Study ................................................................................................................46 3.5 Target Population ......................................................................................................................46 3.6 Sample Size and Sampling Procedures ......................................................................................46 3.7 Construction of Research Instruments......................................................................................48 3.7.1 Questionnaire for Residents...................................................................................................48 3.7.2 Interview Guides for Police Community Liaison Officers and CPCs chairpersons ..................48 3.7.3 Focus Group Discussions ........................................................................................................49 3.8 Piloting of Research Instrument ................................................................................................49 3.9 Testing of Validity and Reliability ..............................................................................................49 3.9.1 Validity Testing .......................................................................................................................49 3.9.2 Reliability Testing ...................................................................................................................50 3.10 Data Collection Procedures .....................................................................................................51 3.11 Data Analysis Procedures ........................................................................................................51 3.11.1 Normality Test ......................................................................................................................52 3.11.2 Research Model....................................................................................................................52 3.12 Ethical Considerations .............................................................................................................53 3.12.1 Intellectual ownership and plagiarism .................................................................................53 3.12.2 Participant’s right to informed consent ...............................................................................53 3.12.3 Participant’s right to privacy ................................................................................................53 3.12.4 Freedom from coercion........................................................................................................53 3.12.5 Access to the Sites ................................................................................................................53 3.12.6 Storage of Collected Data.....................................................................................................53 vi CHAPTER FOUR: ................................................................................................................... 54 RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS ............................................................................... 54 4.1 Introduction ..............................................................................................................................54 4.2 Questionnaire Return Rate .......................................................................................................54 4.3 Demographic information .........................................................................................................55 4.3.1 Gender of the respondents ....................................................................................................55 4.3.2 Age of the respondents ..........................................................................................................55 4.3.3 Respondents’ Level of Education ...........................................................................................56 4.3.4 Marital Status of the respondents .........................................................................................56 4.4 Influence of problem solving on security enhancement ...........................................................57 4.4.1 Descriptive statistics analysis .................................................................................................57 4.4.2 Thematic analysis on Problem solving and Security Enhancement .......................................58 4.4.3 Regression Analysis ................................................................................................................61 4.4.4 Triangulation and Interpreting of quantitative and qualitative Data.....................................63 4.5 Influence of Police-citizen Collaboration on Security Enhancement ........................................63 4.5.1 Descriptive statistics on police-citizen collaboration .............................................................63 4.5.2 Thematic analysis on Police-citizen Collaboration and Security Enhancement .....................65 4.5.3 Regression Analysis ................................................................................................................67 4.5.4 Triangulation and Interpreting of quantitative and qualitative Data.....................................69 4.6 Influence of Citizen Sensitization on Security Enhancement ....................................................69 4.6.1 Descriptive statistics on citizen sensitization .........................................................................70 4.6.2 Thematic analysis on Citizen Sensitization and Security Enhancement .................................71 4.6.3 Regression Analysis ................................................................................................................73 4.6.4 Triangulation and Interpreting of quantitative and qualitative Data.....................................75 4.7 Influence of Information sharing on security enhancement ....................................................76 4.7.1 Descriptive analysis for information sharing ..........................................................................76 4.7.2 Thematic analysis on Information Sharing and Security Enhancement .................................77 4.7.3 Regression Analysis ................................................................................................................79 4.7.4. Triangulation and Interpreting of quantitative and qualitative Data ....................................81 4.8 Influence of Peers Counseling on Security Enhancement .........................................................82 4.8.1 Descriptive analysis for peers counseling ..............................................................................82 4.8.2 Thematic analysis on Peers Counseling and Security Enhancement .....................................83 4.8.3 Regression Analysis ................................................................................................................84 4.8.4. Triangulation and Interpreting of quantitative and qualitative Data ....................................86 4.9 Security Enhancement Indicators Findings ...............................................................................87 4.9.1 Descriptive Statistics on Security Enhancement ....................................................................87 vii 4.9.2 Thematic analysis on Security Enhancement .........................................................................88 4.9.3 Triangulation and Interpreting of quantitative and qualitative Data.....................................90 4.10 Correlation Analysis Results ....................................................................................................90 4.11 Multiple Regression Model .....................................................................................................91 4.11.1 Triangulation and Interpreting of quantitative and qualitative Data...................................92 4.12 Discussion of the Findings .......................................................................................................93 4.12.1 Problem solving and Security Enhancement ........................................................................93 4.12.2 Police-citizen Collaboration and Security Enhancement .....................................................94 4.12.3 Citizen Sensitization and Security Enhancement .................................................................95 4.12.4 Information Sharing and Security Enhancement .................................................................95 4.12.5 Peers Counseling and Security Enhancement ......................................................................96 4.12.6 Security Enhancement .........................................................................................................97 SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ......................................................... 98 5.0 Introduction ..............................................................................................................................98 5.1 Summary of major findings .......................................................................................................98 5.1.1 Problem solving and Security Enhancement ..........................................................................98 5.1.2 Police-citizen Collaboration and Security Enhancement .......................................................98 5.1.3 Citizen Sensitization and Security Enhancement ...................................................................98 5.1.4 Information Sharing and Security Enhancement ...................................................................99 5.1.5 Peers Counseling and Security Enhancement ........................................................................99 5.1.6 Security Enhancement ...........................................................................................................99 5.2 Conclusions of the study ...........................................................................................................99 5.2.1 Problem solving and Security Enhancement ........................................................................100 5.2.2 Police-citizen Collaboration and Security Enhancement .....................................................100 5.2.3 Citizen Sensitization and Security Enhancement .................................................................100 5.2.4 Information Sharing and Security Enhancement .................................................................100 5.2.5 Peers Counseling and Security Enhancement ......................................................................100 5.2.6 Conclusion based on overall model .....................................................................................100 5.3 Recommendations for the Study ............................................................................................101 5.4.1 Recommendations for Practice ............................................................................................101 5.4.2 Recommendations for Policy ...............................................................................................101 5.5 Recommendations for Further Study ......................................................................................102 REFERENCES .......................................................................................................................102 APPENDICES .......................................................................................................................117 APPENDIX I: LETTER OF INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................117 APPENDIX II: INFORMED CONSENT ...............................................................................................118 viii APPENDIX III: QUESTIONNAIRE FOR HOUSEHOLD HEADS ............................................................119 APPENDIX IV: INTERVIEW SCHEDULE FOR CPCS CHAIRPERSONS AND CLOS ................................125 APPENDIX V: INTERVIEW SCHEDULE FOR POLICE OFFICERS .........................................................127 APPENDIX VI: FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION FOR COMMUNITY LEADERS......................................130 APPENDIX VII: DATA COLLECTION PROCEDURES ..........................................................................131 APPENDIX VIII: DATA ANALYSIS PROCEDURES ..............................................................................132 APPENDIX IX: CERTIFICATE OF ETHICAL CLEARANCE ....................................................................132 APPENDIX X: LETTER OF INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................133 APPENDIX XI: RESEARCH PERMIT ..................................................................................................134 APPENDIX XII: LETTER REQUESTING FOR DATA COLLECTION ..............134 APPENDIX XIII: RESEARCH AUTHORIZATION .................................................................................135 APPENDIX XIV: MAP OF GASABO DISTRICT, RWANDA .................................................................136 LIST OF TABLES Table 1: Target Population ..............................................................................................................46 Table 2: Sample Size ........................................................................................................................48 Table 3: Validity Test .......................................................................................................................50 Table 4: Reliability test ....................................................................................................................50 Table 5: Questionnaire Response Rate ...........................................................................................55 Table 6: Gender of the Respondents ..............................................................................................55 Table 7: Age of the Respondents ....................................................................................................55 Table 8: Respondents’ Level of education ......................................................................................56 Table 9: Marital Status of the respondents.....................................................................................56 Table 10: Descriptive statistics on problem solving ........................................................................57 Table 11: Model summary; problem solving and security enhancement .......................................61 Table 12: ANOVA test for problem solving and security enhancement .........................................62 ix Table 13: Regression coefficients; problem solving and security enhancement ............................62 Table 14: Descriptive statistics on police-citizen collaboration ......................................................63 Table 15: Model summary; Police-citizen collaboration and security enhancement .....................67 Table 16: ANOVA test for police-citizen collaboration and security enhancement ........................68 Table 17: Regression coefficients; police-citizen collaboration and security enhancement ..........68 Table 18: Descriptive statistics on citizen sensitization ..................................................................70 Table 19: Model summary; citizen sensitization and security enhancement .................................73 Table 20: ANOVA test for citizen sensitization and security enhancement ....................................74 Table 4.21: Coefficients for citizen sensitization and security enhancement .................................74 Table 22: Descriptive statistics on information sharing ..................................................................76 Table 23: Model summary for information sharing and security enhancement ............................79 Table 24: ANOVA test for information sharing and security enhancement ...................................80 Table 25: Regression coefficients for information sharing and security enhancement .................81 Table 26: Descriptive statistics on peers counseling .......................................................................82 Table 27: Model summary for peers counseling and security enhancement .................................85 Table 28: ANOVA test for peers counseling and security enhancement ........................................85 Table 29: Regression coefficients for peers counseling and security enhancement ......................86 Table 30: Descriptive Statistics on security enhancement..............................................................87 Table 31: Correlation matrix ...........................................................................................................90 Table 32: Model summary for community policing and security enhancement ............................91 Table 33: ANOVA test for community policing and security enhancement....................................91 Table 34: Regression ccoefficients; community policing and security enhancement ....................92 x LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1: Conceptual Framework .......................................................................................................... 43 Figure 2: Concurrent Triangulation Research Design ............................................................................ 45 Figure 3: Respondents’ opinion on the role of problem solving in enhancing security ........................ 58 Figure 4: Histogram and P-P plot for problem solving and security enhancement .............................. 62 Figure 5: Respondents’ opinion on the role of police-citizen collaboration in enhancing security ...... 65 Figure 6: Histogram and P-P plot for police-citizen collaboration and security enhancement ............ 68 Figure 7: Respondents’ opinion on the role of citizen sensitization in enhancing security .................. 71 Figure 8: Histogram and P-P plot for citizen sensitization and security enhancement ........................ 74 Figure 9: Respondents’ opinion on the role of information sharing in enhancing security .................. 77 Figure 10: Histogram and P-P plot for information sharing and security enhancement ...................... 80 Figure 11: Respondents’ opinion on the role of peers counseling in enhancing security .................... 83 Figure 12: Histogram and P-P plot for peers counseling and security enhancement ........................... 85 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS CLOs Community Liaison Officers CP Community Policing CPCs Community Policing Committees DCLO District Community Liaison Officers GIS Geographical Information Systems RIB Rwanda Investigation Bureau RNP Rwanda National Police S.A.R.A. Scanning, Analysis, Response, and Assessment SAP South African police SPSS Statistical Packages for Social Sciences UN United Nations USA United States of America xi VIF Variance Inflation Factor RYVCP Rwanda Youth Volunteers in Community Policing 1 CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background to the Study This study assessed the influence of Community Policing on security enhancement in Gasabo District, Rwanda. Security enhancement refers to improvement in the state of security in a particular location. Enhanced security implies that individuals are safe and free move around without any fear of being attacked (Rexer & Patil, 2019). Community policing is readily accepted as the new face of security enhancement in most parts of the world including Europe, United State of America, Australia, Asia, South America and Africa. In Britain police attained more power and came close to the community after the introduction of community policing by Sir Robert Peel as a way to counter crimes (Douglas & Braga, 2021). These reforms in the London Government began early in 1990. In addition, there was a move to make the police professions, as a result, crimes were prevented (Mulaphong & Cheurprakobkit, 2021). Community policing in United States of America (USA) started in 1970s, though most agencies of law enforcement did not fully embrace the concept until the 1980s. In Mendoza a province in Argentina, adopted an arms exchange programme which resulted to the intensive engagement and commitment by the community to security policies (Ansorg & Gordon, 2019). Community policing existence and practice has been there for a long time. It has developed gradually over time and has been used to enhance security. CP goal is to integrate past community functions with the Reform Era’s backing through education and training. This approach minimizes some of the past negative views of the enforcers of law (Edwards, & Klein, 2020). According to Edwards and Klein, CP places significant emphasis on police-community relationship, and seeks to engage citizens in the fight against crime within their communities. Community policing is a mantra law implementation across the globe. In Asia, a foundation known as The Asia Foundation has fostered community policing almost in every country in Asia (Bello & John- Langba, 2020). The foundation uses a distinctive approach to community policing so as to provide security in these countries for sustainable development. There are very high expectations placed by donors in these countries on community policing. But through the Asia foundation approach the expectations are met thus community policing is sustained. For example, there are ongoing Community Policing programs in Sri Lanka and Timor-Leste. Where Community Policing has spurred a remarkable change: the community work with the Police to create a peaceful environment. The foundation uses community policing to counter given issues of insecurity within communities; this improves the efficiency of the police in their daily duties. Policing has been incorporated in Australia especially on indigenous communities. The place of these communities is either geographical or cultural entities, and therefore community policing must consider these entities before it is executed. As a geographical entity, Indigenous communities have a common rural or urban space with other Australians of different cultural backgrounds, or live in outskirts where facilities are limited (Palombo, 2020). Each entity poses different challenges to the police who are also required to work in a cultural space. The indigenous community policing 2 document presents a solution to these challenges, whereby the liaison officers are brought on board to co-work with the police. These and other community policing initiatives are found across Australia. This has enabled the police to maintain safety across the Pacific region. In the United States, a theoretical consensus emerged that conventional reactive policing methods did not work to deter or regulate crime. Official crime reports, readily accessible to the public, appeared to strengthen this impression of the ineffectiveness of reactive policing tactics, as well as the general image of policing losing the crime fight. Even the established, professional police organizations in America's largest cities appeared unable to curb the alarming rise in crime rates — especially violent crime rates, which doubled between 1973 and 1990 (Jiao, 2022). Out of this time of crisis, proactive policing was developed for American policing. The crises created new demands on the police to strengthen both their ability to cope with crime and disorder and their own internal performance requirements. Proactive policing elements included focusing on prevention, mobilizing police initiative-based resources, and addressing the larger structural forces at work that may cause crime and disorder. This contrasted with reactive policing, which focused on reacting to individual crime incidents after they occurred, mobilizing resources based on demands from outside the police department, and focusing on the facts of a particular criminal incident (Ariel, 2019). From the year 1990, every time police reforms are proclaimed in Latin America then community policing comes in place. It is designed to better the relationships between the police and the community. In regards community policing programs were introduced in Espiritu Santo, a state in Brazil and later in Rio de Janeiro. In general, they were pilot programmes limited in areas that are not broad due to insufficient resources in the police department. In Latin America, citizens have a limited space to interact with the police so as to execute the set actions for public safety (McCarthy, Porter, Townsley & Alpert, 2019). An area in Hatillo district in Costa Rica, a community policing project was started to fight crime. Whereby police stations were created, an advisory committee was formed: comprising community members such as teachers, the church and business community. They worked together to identify and solve security challenges. As a result, the actual level of crime decreased by 9.5% (Kent, 2020). Also, in Brazil, a state by the name São Paulo has adopted a massive community policing program by creating 650 safety councils that are organized by the police. According to the residents these councils are significant and are best soot for wealthier communities. Report reveals that the most successful council is found where the business community is concentrated (McCarthy, et al., 2019). Majority of the African countries have domesticated CP program for the purpose of enhancing security. These countries have tried to adopt the practice as used by developed countries like America and Britain. However, the strategy differs from nation to nation depending on the country’s historical back ground (Redpath, 2019). For instance, in 2005, Kenya adopted CP through an initiative aimed at enhancing security to the citizens (Mwachidudu & Likaka, 2018). The aim of the initiative was to improve relationships, raise the level of trust among the practitioners, promote accountability, appeal for partnerships and collaboration between the community and the police in management of the local security (Fyfe, 2018). Prior to 1994, CP in South Africa was concentrated at the central government, revolutionary and dictatorial. As a result, police had an upper hand to overturn any political protest and resistance of white rule. Although, during this era (apartheid rule), the police force (SAP) lacked weapons and 3 legitimacy for crime control and prevention. Therefore, they only acted as a control unit and not as a service committed to secure the citizens. In essence, such dictatorial policing is not sufficient in terms of oversight and liability. It does not require public legitimacy for it to work. Therefore, the need arose in this new democratic South Africa for the introduction of an advanced way of policing that required a demilitarized approach and that would lead to security enhancement in South Africa (Yesufu, 2021). Community policing initiative in Kenya has existed for more than 10 years. Nonetheless, it has not received much support from the government. Instead, communities have taken interest in ensuring that they partner with law enforcers for the purpose of promoting peace. As such, much support for the CP initiative in Kenya emanates from the people as well as the police officers. However, the government is starting to make effort aimed at boosting CP for example the establishment of the Nyumba Kumi program. The program is aimed at reducing crime and insecurity by encouraging people, especially neighbors to work together. By extension, people are also expected to collaborate with law enforcers in their locality (Yunus, 2021). Community Policing popularly known as Polisi Jamii in Tanzania was initiated in 2006 as a section of an ongoing police reformation. The aim of the initiative was to promote the corroboration between the public and the police. To achieve this collaboration, the police have established ulinzi shirikishi, which means participatory security where people are urged to start neighborhood policing programs to detect and reduce crime (Manji, 2019). Community Policing (CP) is considered as a philosophic approach exercised through a formed organization to promote community control, and police partnership; community engagement to counter the crime cases and other issues in the community (Williams, 2019). In this study, five components of community policing are discussed including problem solving, police-citizen collaboration, citizens’ sensitization, information sharing and peers counseling. Problem solving is a key aspect in community policing (Hatfield, 2021). He argued that community and the police should work together in order to identify other effective ways of solving insecurity problems. The citizens are expected to voluntarily support the law enforcers in coming up with better solutions to the insecurity challenges facing the community. Problem solving reflects on the identification of the community’s concerns and the appropriate solutions are developed to counter the problems. It is empowered by the assumption that any problem in small geographical locations can be solved, by carefully monitoring the characteristics of those problems and developing the definite remedies, (Kearns, 2020). He further observed that the choices made by individuals were dependent on the immediate environment, that is, physical and social features surrounding individuals. As such, controlling these features will make people less motivated to commit crime. It was measured in terms of problem identification, family dispute resolution, night patrols and arrest of criminals. Community policing philosophy is based on joint collaboration principle. This collaboration is between individuals, law stakeholders, and organizations. They work as a team to develop solutions to incidences and help to build up trust in police. Police are not in a position to counter insecurity cases alone and hence the need to encourage interactive collaboration with relevant stakeholders. According to Giwa (2018) community policing is powered by the assumption that the success of preventing crime by the police is dependent on the willingness of the public to participate. As such, the law enforcers should help the community understand that they are key co-producers of security 4 and order. It was measured using coordination mechanism, community works, forums and mutual trust. Community policing is based on its goal to counter crime and uphold better citizen sensitization. To realize an effective community policing investment must be made in training. Whereby, the training should carefully focus on problem evaluation and solving, facilitation, community setup; communication, arbitration and conflict resolve, resource identification and use, networking and connections, and cross-cultural fitness (Schlosser, 2020). It was operationalized through regular community trainings, regular meetings, regular workshops and media programs. Information sharing is a key determinant of effective community policing for enhanced security (Muteti, Mbirithi & Kiruthu (2020). In particular, the public has a responsibility of sharing vital information with the authorities. The initiative by the public to share timely information will enable the police to prevent potential crimes. This will ultimately enhance security. It was measured using social media platforms, peer to peer outreach, word of mouth and art/music. Peers counseling is the process where members of the community encourage each other to avoid crime and promote peace (Blattman, Jamison & Sheridan, 2019). In this case, citizens are supported in advising their peers who are likely to engage in criminal activities. Peers counseling is one of the primary goals of community policing in Rwanda. Through the community policing programme, the members of the public are supposed to be trained on how to counsel their peers who could be involved in crime. Therefore, this study aims at evaluating whether the peers counseling community policing goal has been achieved in Gasabo district. It was measured in terms of peer-to-peer counseling, police to community counseling, community to police counseling, and conflict mediation between peers. In Rwanda, the Genocide against Tutsi of 1994 is one of the heaviest moments in human history. In the aftermath of genocide, the security situations were very critical so that the government had to put in place mechanisms including setting up of Rwanda National Police. Its first priority was to consolidate safety and security, which had been lacking under the previous governments which resulted into the 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi. It is in this regard that the need to shift from the traditional way of policing arose, which used an exclusive law enforcement approach to one that focuses on prevention, partnership and problem solving is needed (OSCE, 2019). Furthermore, community policing was adopted by the cabinet meeting of October 10, 2007, with an aim of improving security in Rwanda. A week later on October 18, a ministerial order (No.02/07) was released establishing Community Policing Committees (CPCs) at the lowest local administrative levels, in villages and cells. At the lowest level – the village umudugudu, the committee is composed of five persons including the village leader (Chairperson) and the person in charge of security (secretary), both directly elected by residents of the village. Three people who complete the committee are selected by the village advisory committee, which reserves the right to replace them whenever they are deemed not to perform to the expected standards. Depending on issues to be resolved, it has the right to invite any other person to join. Committee members are volunteers. Only where possible they are facilitated with some basics such as means of communication. For example, in 2009, 400 mobile phones where distributed among CPCs (Rwanda National Police, 2009). According to the ministerial order, the role of CPCs is to facilitate collaboration between the police and the community. Along with the local authorities they are the bridge between the police and the community and are there to ensure social order, prevent crime, and resolve conflicts. The CPCs are 5 also meant to help in sensitizing the population to play a role in crime prevention by availing relevant information to the authorities. They are charged with reporting crimes or potential criminal and with conducting neighborhood patrols in order to enhance security. The same ministerial order requires the police to appoint and post Community Liaison Officers (CLO) to every sector. Their role is to coordinate CP activities at that administrative level. CLOs link the police and CPCs. In addition to their coordination rules, CLOs train, advise, and assist CPCs to respond to what they perceive to be potential threats to peace and security. More than 10 years since the inception of the CP, Rwanda is still struggling with insecurity challenges. The crime statistics recorded per province in the year 2017 indicates that Kigali City recorded the highest crime rate of 6,730 followed by Eastern province at 6,028; Southern province at 4,679; Western province at 3,655; and lastly Northern Province at 3,087 (National Institute of Statistics of Rwanda [NISR], 2018) Gasabo District which is located in Kigali City according to crime statistics recorded the highest crime rate of over 2,884 cases in 2017. The statistics are evidence of prevailing insecurity challenges in Gasabo Dsitrict. The above scenario prompts the question about the existence of community policing in Gasabo District and its impact on crime prevention and reduction for security enhancement. The proposed study thus seeks to assess the influence of community policing on security enhancement in Gasabo District, Rwanda. 1.2 Statement of the Problem The Rwandese Government has demonstrated its commitment to enhance security through community policing established in the year, 2007. However, cases of insecurity are still prevalent. The National Institute of Statistics of Rwanda ([NISR], 2022) report recorded 34,179 crimes in 2017, in the year 2018 recorded 43,279 crimes, 71,360 crimes in the Year 2019, then to 86,713 crimes in the year 2020. The crimes continued to rise in 2021 to 118,426 crimes, ranging from theft, assault or battery, narcotic drugs, defilement and use of threats. From the above statistics Crime statistics recorded per province in the year 2019 indicates that Kigali City recorded the highest crime rate of 17,092 crimes. Further, crime statistics recorded per district in the year 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2019 and 2020 indicates that Gasabo district recorded the highest crime rate compared to other districts of 1,607 crime cases in the year 2015, 1,805 cases in 2016 and 2,884 cases in 2017 (NISR, 2018). The above statistics confirm that there is a serious security challenge in Rwanda, especially in Gasabo District which is located in Kigali City. This situation if not contained it can lead to high crime rate and insecurity in the country. Despite, the adoption of community policing in Rwanda, there is still high prevalence of crime. There are limited researches conducted on the role of community policing in security enhancement. It is on this premise that the current study sought to fill the knowledge gap by assessing the influence of community policing on security enhancement in Gasabo District, Rwanda. The study aimed to provide policy recommendations on ways of improving community policing program for security enhancement. 1.3 Purpose of the Study The research aimed to assess the influence of community policing on security enhancement in Gasabo District, Rwanda. 6 1.4 Objectives of the Study The following were the specific objectives of the study; i. To examine the influence of problem solving on security enhancement in Gasabo District, Rwanda ii. To examine the influence of police-citizen collaboration on security enhancement in Gasabo District, Rwanda iii. To analyze the influence of citizen sensitization on security enhancement in Gasabo District, Rwanda iv. To evaluate the influence of information sharing on security enhancement in Gasabo District, Rwanda v. To determine the influence of peers counseling on security enhancement in Gasabo District, Rwanda 1.5 Research Hypotheses The following research hypotheses were measured. i. H01: Problem-solving has no significant influence on security enhancement in Gasabo District, Rwanda ii. H02: Police-citizen collaboration has no significant influence on security enhancement in Gasabo District, Rwanda iii. H03: Citizens’ sensitization has no significant influence on security enhancement in Gasabo District, Rwanda iv. H04: Information sharing has no significant influence on security enhancement in Gasabo District, Rwanda v. H05: Peers counseling has no significant influence on security enhancement in Gasabo District, Rwanda 1.6 Significance of the Study The study elaborates on how community policing enhances security in Gasabo District. It sought to increase information about community policing and its influence on security enhancement in Gasabo District, Rwanda, since its establishment in 2007. The results of this study may benefit the Rwanda National Police (RNP) as the lead institution of the approach as the findings may help in understanding the impacts that community policing has made in maintaining security in Gasabo District. It may put forward whether community policing program in Gasabo District was creating the impact intended or not. The results of this study may assist the policy makers and implementers of community policing on how decisions and actions inclined towards security enhancement may be taken to strengthen community policing programs and suggest how security may be improved in Gasabo District, Rwanda. As the study may bring about deeper understanding of community policing, the police officers may find ways of creating synergy with community policing partners to enhance security and address security related challenges. 7 The entire community of Gasabo District may benefit from this study in that, they may be informed on how their participation and working together with other government security organs would improve security within the area. It is anticipated that the research may add to the existing literature on community policing and security enhancement. In addition, the study is a stepping stone for other researchers, who may be interested in the same field of study, as the result might help to highlight major issues concerning security enhancement. Further, the examination may make significant contribution to the body of knowledge on matters security and community policing. The study provides a theoretical foundation on the connection between CP components and security enhancement. Furthermore, this research results may provide empirical evidence on the relationship between the two concepts. This may help in strengthening the body of knowledge on the key concepts. 1.7 Scope of the Study This study focused on community policing in security enhancement in Gasabo District, Rwanda. In particular, it covered the following community policing aspect; problem solving, police-citizen collaboration, citizen sensitization, information sharing and peer counseling, and their impact on security enhancement. The study was conducted in Kigali City in Gasabo District and in all the fifteen sectors that constitute Gasabo District namely; Kacyiru, Gatsata, Jali, Nduba, Gisozi, Jabana, Remera, Ndera, Gikomero, Rusororo, Rutunga, Bumbogo, Kacyiru, Kimihurura, Kimironko and Kinyinya. This is because Gasabo is the biggest district within Kigali City and it is the one where insecurity cases have been more frequent than other districts in Rwanda. The study considered a period from 2007 - 2022. The study target population was all the household heads of Gasabo District who are approximately 139358. The study involved the entire community, community policing committees, police officers and community liaison officers. The research adopted a mixed methodology, involving information collection and evaluation using qualitative and quantitative methods. The design used in this study was concurrent triangulation research design. 1.8 Limitations of the Study Some of the challenges the research may have countered were; i. The respondent’s characteristics are likely to affect data collection. The researcher mitigated this challenge by avoiding personal questions. ii. There was a likelihood of poor or no response from some respondents to questions because of security reasons. Whereby, they consider the information personal. The researcher assured the respondents of confidentiality. 8 iii. The research scope was limited to Gasabo District. However, it may be possible to generalize the outcomes of the study to other districts in Rwanda since they face similar security challenges. 1.9 Delimitations of the Study Delimitations are elements that hinder the scope of the study and outline the restrictions of the study (Best & Kahn, 2018). He added that delimitations explain the standards used to enroll participants of the study, to get the geographic area of coverage, to settle on the profession or organizations involved. This study focused on security enhancement through community policing in Gasabo District, Rwanda. The study was confined to Gasabo District because it is the largest district within Kigali City and it is also where insecurity cases have been more frequent than other districts. It involved different security enhancement organs and groups in all 15 sectors making Gasabo District. These groups included Community Policing Committees (CPCs), Police officers, Community Liaison Officers (CLO), community leaders and the residents of Gasabo District. The research targeted approximately 530 907 residents of Gasabo District, 15 CPCs members, 15 police officers, 15 community liaison officers, and 15 community leaders. 1.10 Assumption of the Study This study was guided by several assumptions as follows: i. The participants would be present for data gathering. ii. The participants would respond and provide correct information. iii. The study ensured that the selected participants had clear understanding of the community policing practices in Gasabo district, Rwanda. 1.11 Operational Definition of Terms Community policing- refers to a policing approach in Rwanda that encourage community participation in enhancing security and support the police need to be receptive to community’s needs. The key components of community policing included problem solving, police-citizen collaboration, community policing citizen’s sensitization, and community policing information sharing. 9 Citizen’s sensitization-refers to creation of awareness to the Rwandan citizens regarding the importance of community policing in enhancing security. It was operationalized through regular community trainings, regular meetings, regular workshops and media programs. Information sharing-refers to sharing of information relating to community policing through various means including social media and word of mouth in Rwanda. It was measured using social media platforms, peer to peer outreach, word of mouth and art/music. Police-citizen collaboration- it is where members of public in Rwanda partner with the police in solving matters security like physical disorder, crime and social in order to improve the community way of living. It was measured using coordination mechanism, community works, forums and mutual trust. Problem solving - refers to the joint effect between the police and community members in Rwanda to identify and analyze the causes of crime and to develop innovative measures to address them. It was measured in terms of problem identification, family dispute resolution, night patrols and arrest of criminals. Peers counseling-is a process where members of the community in Rwanda encourage each other to avoid crime and promote peace. It was measured in terms of peer-to-peer counseling, police to community counseling, community to police counseling, and conflict mediation between peers. Security enhancement-is safety enhancement in Rwanda as a consequence of community policing being adopted. It was operationalized using crime prevention, social cohesion and community safety. CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Introduction A literature review is a type of academic writing that, when presented in context, demonstrates the author's knowledge and comprehension of the academic literature on a particular subject (Paul & Criado, 2020). This chapter presents empirical literature review on the link between community 10 policing and security enhancement. It also outlines theoretical and conceptual frameworks. Further, the chapter provides identification of research gaps and recap of literature review. 2.2 Empirical Literature Review This section presents literature review in line with the study variables. The main study variables include problem solving, police-citizen collaboration, citizen sensitization, information sharing and peers counseling. The review of past studies reveals several research gaps that the current study aimed to address. 2.2.1 Community Policing Community Policing (CP) is considered as a philosophic approach exercised through a formed organization to promote community control, and police partnership; community engagement to counter the crime cases and other issues in the community (Williams, 2019). Further, CP emphasizes that security is an important aspect in life and it is upon every individual to take responsibility for the safety of the community. The idea behind community policing is to bring all stakeholders on board in order to realize the ultimate goal of a safe society. Traditionally, the role of providing security has been left to the police. For a long time, people have believed that it is the work of the law enforcers to ensure that there is security. However, in the modern days, it is impossible for law enforcers to solely guarantee security. The situation has been made worse by the rapid increase in population thus further widening the ratio between police and citizens. Therefore, the need for adopting community policing that ensures cooperation between the citizens and the law enforcers. CP ensures that all stakeholders participate in promoting peace within the society. The benefits of community policing program are tremendous. Countries that have managed to successfully implement the program have experienced enhanced security, which has translated into social, political and economic development (Williams, 2019). The views of Williams (2019) concur with those of Sir Robert Peel in 1829 who opined that the police are wholly dependent on the public and vice versa. This redefines the CP philosophic method of involving the public to counter crime and improve people’s living standard. It requires teamwork where the police work hand in hand with the society to recognize, highlight and deal with problems of social, crime and order. Different countries have adopted community policing approach for varying reasons. In America, CP was adopted when the police failed to counter crime, bring order and become receptive to people’s need (Méndez Beck & Jaffe, 2018). In Mendoza a province in Argentina, adopted an arms exchange programme which resulted to the intensive engagement and commitment by the community to security policies (Taylor & Bonner, 2020). In Uganda community policing was initiated in 1989 to contain the political turmoil and social strife that started in 1986. In Nigeria, community policing was introduced in 2003 and improved in 2004 by Mustafa Adebayo Balogun, the former Inspector General of Nigerian Police who took different measures as an effort to address mutual antagonisms that had developed between the public and the police forces leading to the public distrust of the police. With the help of British Government, Mustafa introduced a pilot community policing project in Enugu State and three of the eight top points on the agenda were enhancing the Community partnership in policing (3rd), the modern approach all over the world, improving comprehensive training programme conducive for qualitative policing (5th) and robust public relations necessary for the vision of people’s Police (8th) (Afolabi, 2018). 11 Manji (2019) reveals how community policing begun by sungusungu/wasalama groups in Tanzania. These are groups were formed by traditional people who volunteered to fight cattle rustlers and banditry in Mwanza, Tabora and Shinyanga Region in 1981 and two years later in Singida, Kagera and Mara areas. The aim of this approach was to ensure security of the community through information sharing. A system known as ‘Nyumba Kumi’ was established at the grassroots level in the village, whereby elders who were organized as council would be in charge of ten households, that is, one elder for ten houses. This system identified and vetted trustworthy people from the smallest village level who would report arrivals and departure of people in that village to the council. Whereby, any stranger who arrived at a hotel, a house or home, these people would immediately inform the set council of Nyumba Kumi and the news would be passed over to the immigration officers (Thuku, 2021). According to Thuku (2021), community policing in Kenya enhances joint partnership and cohesion on Groups of young people, community courts and joint patrols. He added that if this model was to be adopted then crime acts would be countered and citizens would be motivated to share information about one another. It is also expected of the citizens to be on the lookout of any security threat and provide information to the security body. Chimba and Muna (2021) examined how community policing in Kwale County, Kenya, affected local security management procedures through a case study of Kinango. The study's goal was to ascertain how Kwale County, Kenya's community policing program impacted regional security management plans. The study was directed by three objectives: proving and enhancing community members' knowledge of the community policing initiative, information sharing, and opinions of community policing concerning local security management strategies. A descriptive case study was the research methodology that was employed. The findings revealed that attitudes toward local security management methods, information sharing on community policing, and member knowledge of the community policing effort all had an impact on security management practices. Because the study was conducted in Kenya, there is a contextual gap. In Rwanda, the current study was conducted. Kasali (2018) investigated if community policing in Nigeria needs to be reframed as a different approach to police in order to address the security issues the nation faces. The study looks at the overall theory behind community policing and how it functions in Nigeria in order to pinpoint several places where the idea isn't being applied correctly. In order to achieve its goals, the study looked at community policing's conceptual definition, examined it as an alternative security option, looked at how it is used in Nigeria, and made recommendations for how it can be used to satisfy the security needs of the country. Findings revealed that Nigeria's community policing approach is riddled with inconsistencies, which has exacerbated the country's dissatisfaction with finding the right course to protect people's safety and property in the face of escalating security concerns. Given that the study was conducted in Nigeria, there is a contextual gap. In Rwanda, the current study was conducted. Muchira (2019) concentrated on Kirinyaga County, Central Kenya, and the function of community policing in preventing crime. For the purpose of conducting a descriptive survey analysis, the researcher used qualitative and quantitative methodologies. Focus group talks and key informant interviews provided qualitative data that were used to complement and triangulate these quantitative data. The results show that community courts, vigilante organizations, and combined police-community patrols have all aided in reducing crime in Kirinyaga County. Because the study was conducted in Kenya, there is a contextual gap. In Rwanda, the current study was conducted. 12 In Mombasa County, Kenya, community policing and its impact on crime control were the main topics of Ronoh and Hamasi's (2021) study. A descriptive research design was used to carry out the study. According to the study, community policing operations were reoriented through citizen surveys that helped the agency identify needs and top concerns; applicant sourcing and selection strategies that focused on candidates qualified for community policing projects; and staff evaluations that bolstered community policing and problem-solving skills. The investigation's conclusions also demonstrated the following: there is a trusting relationship between security personnel and the public, which encourages crime reporting; police and community members work together to identify and report crimes; and the community participates in policing through regular forums to discuss issues related to crime. The study also found that CP and crime management contributed to a reduction in the number of citizen reports of crimes at the police station, a decrease in property crime, fewer physical altercations between members of the public and security personnel, and a favorable public opinion of police work. As per the results of the study, Mombasa County Police has made great strides in improving partnerships in relation to community policing and crime control. The study also discovered that a major focus of Mombasa County's CP implementation was prevention and how it affected crime control. According to the study's findings, Mombasa County Police changed the way they operated to better align with the CP theory, which had an impact on crime control. Because the study was conducted in Kenya, there is a contextual gap. In Rwanda, the current study was conducted. Victor (2018) concentrated on crime prevention and community policing in the Kuresoi South Constituency. Descriptive survey analysis was used in the study, combining a qualitative and quantitative methodology. It also made use of secondary data from the theoretical framework and literature review. Focus Group Discussions (FGD) were used to gather qualitative data. The results showed that the "nyumba kumi" campaign had a positive impact on crime rates in Kuresoi South constituency. The knowledge gained from this research will be helpful to the residents of Kuresoi South. The descriptive research strategy used in this study demonstrates a methodological flaw. The research design for the current study used a hybrid technique. Gaokgathege (2020) examined the impact of Botswana's Kanye District cluster policing on reducing crime. The study employed a qualitative approach with a sample size of 75 participants, and it was informed by theories of routine activities, rational choice, and social disorder. According to the results, the majority of respondents said that target hardening, increased community safety and security, and law enforcement were the main causes of cluster policing's somewhat effective contribution to crime prevention. Respondents also concurred that problem-solving strategies had a high level of effectiveness in preventing crime, while community partnerships had a moderately effective effect due to best practices, community commitment, and the caliber of community partners. There is a methodological gap in this study because it used a qualitative methodology. Both qualitative and quantitative methods were applied in the current investigation. Diphoorn and Kyed (2019) examined the interplay between community policing and private security in Swaziland and South Africa. The article, which draws from ethnographic fieldwork, demonstrates how these individuals interact with one another across socio-spatial borders and in a variety of unique, frequently informal ways. As a result, community policing was privatized and private security was communalized all at once. These are not simple procedures, though. A number of actors move 13 between the commercial and community logics of security, often articulating their differences in order to gain an advantage in the competitive security market. This raises concerns regarding the goals and motivations behind many security performances. The study's use of community policing as a dependent variable revealed a contextual gap. Community policing served as an independent variable in the current investigation. In their study, Spasić and Radovanović (2019) examined the relationship between Serbian community police and citizen security demands. The study's findings show that the residents of the areas under investigation are worried about the scope and severity of various forms of violence as well as any social conduct that puts their families' safety in danger. They emphasize the significance of taking preventive action and acknowledge the police as a local resource that may help with their security concerns. The police services' lack of interdepartmental coordination and the local community's limited involvement in problem-solving were identified as the limitations. The study's use of community policing as a dependent variable revealed a contextual gap. Community policing served as an independent variable in the current investigation. Okech (2018) used Ngong'Sub-county, Kenya, as a case study for community policing and security from 2003 to 2013. According to the report, the implementation of the CBP program in Ngong Sub County resulted in a decrease in local insecurity. The study expands on the body of research on the connections between Kenyan security and the CBP program by concentrating on the case study of the region. Investigating the connections between the CBP program and security is also essential for developing effective countermeasures to issues with crime and insecurity both domestically and internationally. Because the study was conducted in Kenya, there is a contextual gap. In Rwanda, the current study was conducted. The Nyumba Kumi community policing strategy and its effect on reducing crime were the main topics of Leting's (2019) empirical assessment from Kenya. Descriptive statistics were used to analyze the data, and each item's mean, percentage, and frequency distribution were computed. The study's conclusions indicated that Kenya had a Nyumba Kumi community policing system in place to reduce crime. The panelists reached a consensus regarding the factors that contributed to Kenya's declining crime rate: nyumba kumi community policing tactics, police administration, and political support and good will from the government. The study concluded that in areas where the jurisdiction has attained a certain level of political stability and shared values, nyumba kumi community policing efforts can be successful. There may be a widespread lack of respect for community policing tactics among police who are underpaid and demoralized as a result of major management issues and corruption. These factors make it unlikely that police will be motivated to collaborate with the community. This study was conducted in Rwanda, whereas the previous one was conducted in Kenya. Kagoro (2020) concentrated on the Ugandan regime's security measures through community policing, known as the Crime Preventers Scheme. This article evaluates the objective's degree of achievement and clarifies the main takeaways from the ongoing endeavor. The Obama administration started highlighting community policing's potential in 2011 out of concern that similar radicalization will occur across the nation and that police departments might work with local communities to stop it. 14 The US Department of Justice then made Minneapolis-St. Paul, the state capital, a national model for doing the same. Due to the study's completion in Uganda, a contextual gap was evident. In Rwanda, the current study was conducted. Yeager (2018) concentrated on American community policing, crime prevention, security policing, and citizen control. The object's condition and status must be able to be altered by the policy's implementation in accordance with the dynamics that exist in the field. Research has shown that a number of factors, such as a lack of community policing policies, low-quality human resources for the position, insufficient money, and a lack of local culture empowerment, impede the implementation of community police policies. In order to effectively implement community policing policies and achieve security and order in the city of Bandung, the author developed a new concept. This new concept is the OK PRAPTO Model, a normative model that produces results based on ASOCA analysis, thereby facilitating the implementation of community policing policies in the city of Bandung. There is a contextual gap because the study was conducted in America. In Rwanda, the current study was conducted. Adelani et al. (2023) focused on the impact of community policing on security management in Kubwa, Bwari local council Federal Capital Territory, Abuja. This investigation used an exploratory research design and relied on archive materials that were accessible to the public. The research uses only secondary data. The study is carried out through a review of the literature on security management and community policing. The literature was found by searching through the content that was made available to the public. Non-serial publications, official reports, and conference materials have been included, especially if they have been cited by other references that discuss security architecture, security management, community policing, or national security. The paper's findings revealed a lack of coordination between the Nigerian law enforcement agencies and the people they are supposed to be protecting. According to the study's findings, Nigeria's security architecture is too monolithic, making it impossible to include additional informal security players and private security providers in the fight against insecurity. This study revealed a methodological gap because it used an exploratory research methodology. The research design for the current study used a hybrid technique. Mwachidudu and Likaka (2018) concentrated on how security services in Nakuru, Kenya's Njoro sub- County implemented community policing. The sample respondents for these agencies were their officers. Officers were chosen at random from the strata comprised by the three security services. The study comes to the conclusion that there is ample evidence of community policing being carried out by the three security organizations in Njoro Sub-County. Funds must be set aside for security agencies to survey communities, and in light of the adoption of community policing, it must be made sure that the required structural and managerial style changes are implemented. Because the study was conducted in Kenya, there is a contextual gap. In Rwanda, the current study was conducted. In Kirinyaga County, Central Kenya, Limiri (2018) investigated the function of community policing in preventing crime using a descriptive survey. Security tactics were shown to have the greatest impact on the effectiveness of security programs. Community training, problem-oriented approach, and police community partnership were found to be the next most important factors. Additionally, it can be said that Kwale County's local security management effort performs better when community policing is implemented. Therefore, in order 15 to increase security in their area, the community must receive comprehensive training on CP and the advantages of accepting it. Opio, Chono, and Mwesigwa (2022) concentrated on the decision-making process surrounding the usage of community-oriented policing against traditional policing in the pursuit of security and peace among slum residents in Lira City, Northern Uganda. In order to gather data from participants, a case study research design was employed along with a qualitative methodology and in-person interviews. Combining the two can strengthen efforts to improve peace and security, even if the study indicated that COP appeared to offer more advantages than the previous model given that the majority of the population. It is advised that significant stakeholders obtain continual training so they can understand the importance of community policing to peace and security. There is a methodological gap because a case study research design was employed in conjunction with a qualitative methodology. A mixed method research strategy will be used for this investigation. The influence of community-police partnerships on community policing in Kenya's Lurambi Sub- County was the main emphasis of Mosis (2023). The social capital theory, routine activity theory, and cognitive dissonance theory served as the study's pillars. A mixed-methods strategy was used in the study to collect and analyze both quantitative and qualitative data. The study's findings demonstrated a statistically significant and favorable correlation between community policing and police partnership in the Lurambi Sub-County. Because the study was conducted in Kenya, there is a contextual gap. In Rwanda, the current study was conducted. Chikeleze, Vigil, Hale, Johnson and Williams (2021) conducted an empirical assessment of the literature with an emphasis on the effects of community policing on police legitimacy, job satisfaction, and fear and crime reduction. This article uses a range of outcome indicators to synthesize the available empirical research regarding the efficacy of community policing projects. First, a summary of community policing is given, with special emphasis on its goals and core principles. The methodological rigor and scientific value of earlier research that examined the efficacy of community policing are then evaluated. Due to the study's desktop research approach, a methodological gap was revealed. The research design for this study used a mixed method approach. 2.2.2 Security Enhancement Security is a concept which has got multi definitions depending on the context in which it is used. According to Collins (2019) security is the pursuit, by a state, of freedom from threat to the nation and territorial integrity. Alaeddin, Al Dakash and Azrak (2021) posits security as the level of predictability at the various stages of the social setup, from the grassroots level to the whole world. The literature shows that the narrow perspective has however, dominated the general understanding of security for a long period of time (Öjendal et al., 2021). Security remained, throughout the 20th century, heavily dominated by the Westphalian mindset in general, and the Cold War influence in particular, emphasizing national security through the 16 establishment of a specific territory, guaranteed through a realist emphasis on military means to keep up that security. Since then, the narrow understanding of security was a subject to criticism. In the context of human security commission, security refers to what is called “Human Security” does not only involve human conflict, it also encompasses access to education, human right, health care and good governance. This works a long way in helping individuals to fulfill their potential, get rid of fear and have the freedom of want so as to have a healthy generation (Javed et al., 2018). Security is then understood as individuals’ centered security which the statement that the security of a state comes from the security from its people and it becomes obvious that the state is no longer the only actor in providing security, rather individuals and groups have an active role to play. In this angle an individual feels secure if he/she has job and health security and living in an environment free from crime. In the context of community policing, security should be understood in a wider sense where it is not only for the state but also for the individual. Thus, security should be both state and individual centered. It should also extend from local communities to national, regional and global level. It is in this perspective that everybody can voluntarily play a role in maintaining security in his/her community. It is in this context that stable peace can be thought of. Security enhancement refers to improvement in the state of security in a particular location. Enhanced security implies that individuals are safe and free move around without any fear of being attacked. Further, security enhancement implies to reduction in the cases of crime within a society. As such, people no longer live-in fear of being attacked or their properties being stolen. It is the desire of every government and nation to achieve enhanced security. A country with enhanced security thrives socially, politically and economically. Community policing is one of the approaches in which countries can enhance their security. It makes everyone develop a sense of responsibility in promoting peace and unity (Rexer & Patil, 2019). Benaya et al. (2023) concentrated on improving physical layer security using UAV-Friendly Jamming and intelligent omni-surfaces. In order to provide secure communication in an Internet-of-things (IoT) communication system, the study makes use of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV) and intelligent omni-surfaces (IOS), a substitute for IRS. An average secrecy rate maximization issue was employed in the study, which simultaneously optimizes the power splitting factor, IOS phase changes, UAV trajectory, and AP and UAV transmission powers. Because the problem was not convex, we used sequential convex approximation, or SCA, to solve it. The results of the simulation demonstrated how quickly the iterative SCA solution converges. Additionally, the suggested approach performs 140% better in terms of secrecy capacity than the conventional system without IOS. However, the study did not include community policing, indicating a conceptual gap. Kavitha and Neela (2018) concentrated on the best way to distribute multi-type FACTS devices and how BBO, WIPSO, and PSO may be used to improve system security. This work presents an objective function that takes into account cost, line loadings, and load voltage changes in order to optimize the benefits of their installation. The relative relevance of each component is determined by the weights assigned to them. In order to improve security, the impact of installing TCSC, SVC, TCSC-SVC, and UPFC in minimizing the defined target has been examined under situations of increased system loading. According to the results, the best SVC installation significantly improves the voltage profile when compared to other FACTS devices, and the best TCSC installation performs best in minimizing 17 both line loading and load voltage deviation. Additional analysis shows that the combined TCSC-SVC indicates a reasonably good improvement in minimizing both line loading and load voltage deviations, which is comparable with UPFC. However, the study did not include community policing, indicating a conceptual gap. Yegon (2020) compared Kenya and Tanzania as a case study for community policing in east Africa as a national security strategy. The Case Study method was the general approach used for the investigation. Overall, the survey found that people in Nairobi, Kenya, and Dodoma, Tanzania, felt that Community Policing (CP) had improved their level of fear of crime. In reality, CBP involves developing the capacity and training of law enforcement and the community, as well as strategic planning, national policy development, and local pilot initiatives. Pilot programs include, for example, support for local partnership safety projects and community safety/information centers. Overall, it has been noted that the CBP pilot program has enhanced community, civil society, and police cooperation and mutual trust. It was determined that enhanced policy environments, knowledgeable, skilled, and driven human resources, sustainable finance systems, equipment, and technology systems are all necessary for the long-term viability of CP. A methodological gap was identified in the study by using a case study as the research strategy. The research design for the current study used a hybrid technique. In their study, Vijayaraman, Siddiqui, and Varadharajan (2022) concentrated on advanced security enhancement along with failure mechanism and effect analysis in injection molding machines. A thorough analysis of the machines and their workings was conducted, leading to the production of a comprehensive report outlining the failure scenarios and a summary of the detection systems. Furthermore, an advanced security enhancement was carried out to determine the potential risks to which the system could be susceptible. These techniques ensured that the sector gained the upper hand in raising machine security and overall production. In their study, Luo and Pei (2022) concentrated on the usage of orthogonal vector-based transmission techniques for dual-polarized wireless communications to improve security and eliminate PDLs. To increase transmission security, the mixed matrices are processed using the weighted fractional Fourier transform (WFRFT) method before being converted into vectors. For legitimate users, the received signals can be reshaped into the right size matrices, and the inverse- WFRFT is then applied to the matrices using the right WFRFT instructions. Additionally, the signal matrix is processed using the same orthogonal vectors in the proper order to retrieve the original signals. The PDL effect is automatically eliminated because there are no reciprocal interferences between the two recovered polarization signals because the orthogonal vectors for the two polarizations are distinct. Furthermore, it is hard to decipher the signals. Lastly, simulation results show how well the suggested approach performs in terms of improving transmission security and removing the PDL impact. Ghiasi et al.'s (2021) study combined blockchain technology and the Hilbert Huang transform to improve cyber-security and identify cyber-attacks in smart DC-microgrids. In order to detect false data injection attacks (FDIAs) in an MG system, this study uses blockchain-based ledger technology and the Hilbert-Huang transform methodology to improve the security in the smart DC-MGs. This is achieved by extracting the signal details and analyzing the voltage and current signals in smart sensors and controllers. Examining simulation results for different scenarios serves the goal of verifying the efficacy of the proposed model. The results showed that the suggested model may 18 improve data exchange security in a smart DC and provide a more precise and dependable FDIA.-MG detection method. Karaiga (2019) examined Entebbe, Municipality, Wakiso District as a case study to highlight how community policing in Uganda might improve personal security. The study was guided by the following objectives: to assess the existing methods for promoting personal security in Entebbe municipality through community policing; to look into the role that community policing plays in this regard; and to look into the challenges associated with putting community policing into practice in Entebbe municipality. The research employed a cross-sectional survey approach, integrating both qualitative and quantitative methodologies. The study found that community policing effectively addresses security concerns and challenges in communities because it is proactive, decentralized, and aims to minimize crime and the fear of crime. However, it was discovered that community policing was not yet effective because of a number of issues, such as the police's use of conventional techniques, a lack of public trust, and a lack of integration between the police and the community. Due to the study's completion in Uganda, a contextual gap was evident. In Rwanda, the current study was conducted. Kavuturu and Narasimham (2020) focused on enhancing transmission security under (N-1) contingency scenarios by utilizing optimally designed unified power flow controllers and generated renewable energy sources. To confirm the OUPFC device's performance under single line contingency scenarios, an optimal power flow (OPF) based multi-objective function is established using real power loss and line collapse proximity indicator (LCPI). The optimal location for the OUPFC is first determined using the LCPI index. The OUPFC device is then considered at different RES generating levels in a (n-1) contingency analysis. Through simulation results of multiple case studies conducted on a standard IEEE-30 bus test system, it has been shown that CSA2 is superior to CSA1 and time-varying acceleration coefficient-particle swarm optimization (TVAC-PSO) in handling multi- objective, non-linear complicated optimization problems. Additionally, OUPFC's capacity to control the effects of variable RES generation and (n-1) line contingency is demonstrated in terms of reduced real power loss, greater security margin, and improved voltage profile. The research strategy used in the study was a case study, indicating a methodological flaw. The research design for this study used a mixed method approach. Choi and Young (2021) concentrated on the application of the protection motivation theory to a realistic security enhancement strategy. The purpose of this study is to determine the essential components that can enhance security and reduce the anxiety that organization members feel about information security. Results indicated that examining the variables that affect organization members' behavior and have the potential to increase their motivation for protection could provide a solution to the security reinforcement conundrum. However, the study did not include community policing, indicating a conceptual gap. Zhang et al.'s (2022) main goal was to improve power system state estimation security using a moving target defense that was both affordable and efficient. First, the study gave MTD a sufficient and required condition to shield a bus from the planned FDIA's effects. Based on these results, the study proposed a new method to quantify the level of MTD protection and a useful technique to lower the total number of D-FACTS devices required to protect a given set of buses. In order to reduce the operating cost, the study developed two strategies to turn the rising operation cost associated with activating the MTD into zero. Additionally, the study examined how MTD affected 19 the dynamics of the system, paying particular attention to small signal stability. However, the study did not include community policing, indicating a conceptual gap. The current study will concentrate on the use of community policing in Rwanda's Gasabo District to improve security. 2.2.3 Influence of Problem solving on Security Enhancement Problem solving is a key aspect in community policing (Hatfield, 2021). He argued that community and the police should work together in order to identify other effective ways of solving insecurity problems. The citizens are expected to voluntarily support the law enforcers in coming up with better solutions to the insecurity challenges facing the community. Problem solving reflects on the identification of the community’s concerns and the appropriate solutions are developed to counter the problems. It is empowered by the assumption that any problem in small geographical locations can be solved, by carefully monitoring the characteristics of those problems and developing the definite remedies, (Kearns, 2020). He further observed that the choices made by individuals were dependent on the immediate environment, that is, physical and social features surrounding individuals. As such, controlling these features will make people less motivated to commit crime. According to Baker (2020) the problem solving is likened to a model that has four steps. The model is known as S.A.R.A, where S, A, R and A represent Scanning, Analysis, Response, and Assessment respectively. S.A.R.A is cyclical in nature. He noted that scanning involved joint identification and prioritization by the police and the community the security issues within an area. Analysis on the other hand entails determining the extent of the problem and learning extensively in order to identify its causes. Response involves the formulation of tailor-made strategies so as to come up with long-term, creative, problem-specific solutions to the problem that are broad uninhibited. Finally, assessment phase aims at evaluating and seeing if the strategies devised have been successful in fighting the predetermined causes of insecurity and if those strategies contributed to the improvement of the security (Baker, 2020). Amir, Hasanah and Musthofa (2018) reveal problem solving as an interactive event because the community identifies crime issues, engage the police and together they develop definite solutions. It is empowered by the assumption that any problem in small geographical locations can be solved by studying the characteristics of the problem and then applying the definite resources. According to the authors, cases of crime can be reduced by identifying the attributes of crime and then developing appropriate solutions. Sun, Liu and Farmer (2019) observed that problem solving is a key component in community policing. Whereby not all problems are to be confined to crimes and at the same time the solutions offered must not involve arrest. Further, the community and police should be encouraged to go for problem solving techniques and carefully monitor the elements that cause occurrences (Braga & Tucker, 2018). They further identify four steps of problem solving as follows; identifying the problem; evaluating the problem; finding definite solutions to the problem; and execution and response assessment to the problem. Garcia and Polson (2018) observed that problem solving would be assessed by asking the question, and not the number of arrests as done in the past. According to Meschoulam (2019) problem solving reflects how community policing motivates the association of people in realizing their goal of enhancing security. People’s involvement in crime solving is important in ensuring safety of the community. The proposed study seeks to further contribute to Meschoulam’s findings by assessing 20 the effectiveness of problem solving in enhancing security, particularly, concentrating on Gasabo District in Rwanda. Problem solving holds that it is possible for the public to access the police and get their support at the grassroots level (Verdolini, 2018). Furthermore, large communities are more likely engaged in community policing (Onuoha et al., 2021). The author points out a very important aspect regarding capacity building of the community. There is need to build the capacity of all communities so that they can be part of the solution to crime issues. This study seeks to contribute to Onuaha’s findings by focusing on how possible communities can be equipped so as to be able to address crime issues. A study by Wanjohi (2019) focused on the effect of problem solving on crime reduction. The findings indicated that problem solving leads to reduction of crime cases. However, the reviewed study was carried out in Kenya and not Rwanda. Problem sol